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사용자:Evraziskykr/노드스트림

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Nord Stream (former names: North Transgas and North European Gas Pipeline; 러시아어: Северный поток, Severny potok) is a system of offshore natural gas pipelines in Europe, running under the Baltic Sea from Russia to Germany. It includes two pipelines running from Vyborg to Lubmin near Greifswald forming the original Nord Stream, and two further pipelines running from Ust-Luga to Lubmin termed Nord Stream 2. In Lubmin it is connected to the OPAL pipeline to Olbernhau on the Czech border and to the NEL pipeline to Rehden near Bremen.

The original Nord Stream is owned and operated by Nord Stream AG, whose majority shareholder is the Russian state company Gazprom, and Nord Stream 2 is owned and will be operated by Nord Stream 2 AG, which is also a wholly owned subsidiary of Gazprom.

The first line of Nord Stream (also known as Nord Stream 1[1]) was laid by May 2011 and was inaugurated on 8 November 2011.[2][3] The second line of Nord Stream was laid in 2011–2012 and was inaugurated on 8 October 2012. At 1,222 km (759 mi) in length, Nord Stream is the longest sub-sea pipeline in the world, surpassing the Langeled pipeline.[4][5] The laying of Nord Stream 2 was carried out in 2018–2021.[6] The first line of Nord Stream 2 was completed in June 2021, and the second line was completed in September 2021.

Nord Stream has a total annual capacity of 55십억 세제곱미터 (1.9×10^12 cu ft)%s%s of gas, and the addition of Nord Stream 2 is expected to double this capacity to a total of 110십억 세제곱미터 (3.9×10^12 cu ft)%s%s.[7][8][9]

The Nord Stream projects have been fiercely opposed by the United States and Ukraine, as well as by other Central and Eastern European countries, because of concerns that the pipelines would increase Russia's influence in Europe, and because of the large reduction of transit fees for use of alternative pipelines in Central and Eastern European countries. The builders contend that the pipeline is more important to Germany than Russia, which could just as easily sell the gas to China and other Asian nations.

The name "Nord Stream" occasionally refers to a wider pipeline network, including the feeding onshore pipeline in Russia, and further connections in Western Europe.

History 편집

 
Nord Stream opening ceremony on 8 November 2011 with Angela Merkel, Dmitry Medvedev, Mark Rutte and François Fillon.

Nord Stream 1 편집

The original pipeline project started in 1997 when Gazprom and the Finnish oil company Neste (in 1998 merged with Imatran Voima to form Fortum, which in 2004 separated again into Fortum and Neste) formed the joint company North Transgas Oy for construction and operation of a gas pipeline from Russia to Northern Germany across the Baltic Sea.[10] North Transgas cooperated with the German gas company Ruhrgas (which later became part of E.ON, which was split still later into E.ON and Uniper). A route survey in the Exclusive Economic Zones of Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Germany, and a feasibility study of the pipeline was conducted in 1998. Several routes were considered including routes with onshore segments through Finland and Sweden.[11]

On 24 April 2001, Gazprom, Fortum, Ruhrgas and Wintershall adopted a statement regarding a joint feasibility study for construction of the pipeline.[12] On 18 November 2002, the Management Committee of Gazprom approved a schedule of project implementation. In May 2005, Fortum withdrew from the project and sold its stake in North Transgas to Gazprom. As a result, Gazprom became the only shareholder of North Transgas Oy.[10][13]

On 8 September 2005, Gazprom, BASF and E.ON signed a basic agreement on the construction of a North European Gas Pipeline. On 30 November 2005, the North European Gas Pipeline Company (later renamed Nord Stream AG) was incorporated in Zug, Switzerland. On 9 December 2005, Gazprom started construction of the Russian onshore feeding pipeline (Gryazovets–Vyborg gas pipeline) in the town of Babayevo in Vologda Oblast.[14] The feeding pipeline was completed in 2010.

On 4 October 2006, the pipeline and the operating company were officially renamed Nord Stream AG.[15] After establishment of Nord Stream AG, all information related to the pipeline project, including results of the seabed survey of 1998, were transferred from North Transgas to the new company, and on 2 November 2006, North Transgas was officially dissolved.[16]

The environmental impact assessment started on 16 November 2006 with notification sent to Russia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Germany, as parties of origin (the countries whose exclusive economic zones and/or territorial waters the pipeline is planned to pass through), as well as to Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia as affected parties.[17] The final report on transboundary environmental impact assessment was delivered on 9 March 2009.[18]

On 19 March 2007, Nord Stream AG hired Italian company Snamprogetti, a subsidiary of Saipem, for detailed design engineering of the pipeline.[19] A letter of intent for construction works was signed with Saipem on 17 September 2007 and the contract was concluded on 24 June 2008.[20][21] On 25 September 2007, the pipe supply contracts were awarded to the pipe producers EUROPIPE and OMK, and on 18 February 2008, the concrete weight coating and logistics services agreement was awarded to EUPEC PipeCoatings S.A.[22][23] The supply contracts for the second line were awarded to OMK, Europipe and Sumitomo Heavy Industries on 22 January 2010.[24] On 30 December 2008 Rolls-Royce plc was awarded a contract to supply turbines for the compressor, and on 8 January 2009, Royal Boskalis Westminster and Danish Dredging Contractor Rohde Nielsen A/S. were awarded a joint venture seabed dredging contract.[25][26]

The agreement to take Gasunie to the consortium as the fourth partner, was signed on 6 November 2007.[27] On 10 June 2008, Gasunie was included in the register of shareholders.[28] On 1 March 2010, French energy company GDF Suez signed with Gazprom a memorandum of understanding to acquire 9% stake in the project.[29] The transaction was closed in July 2010.[30]

In August 2008, Nord Stream AG hired former Finnish prime minister Paavo Lipponen as a consultant to help speed up the application process in Finland and to serve as a link between Nord Stream and Finnish authorities.[31]

On 21 December 2007, Nord Stream AG submitted application documents to the Swedish government for the pipeline construction in the Swedish Exclusive Economic Zone.[32] On 12 February 2008, the Swedish government rejected the consortium's application which it had found incomplete.[33][34] New application was filed later. On 20 October 2009, Nord Stream received a construction permit to build the pipeline in the Danish waters.[35] On 5 November 2009, the Swedish and Finnish authorities gave a permit to lay the pipeline in their exclusive economic zones.[36] On 22 February 2010, the Regional State Administrative Agency for Southern Finland issued the final environmental permit allowing construction of the Finnish section of the pipeline.[37][38]

On 15 January 2010 construction of the Portovaya compressor station in Vyborg near the Gulf of Finland began. [39] [40] The first pipe of the pipeline was laid on 6 April 2010 in the Swedish exclusive economic zone by the Castoro Sei vessel. In addition to Castoro Sei, also Castoro 10 and Solitaire were contracted for pipe-laying works.[41] Construction of the pipeline was officially launched on 9 April 2010 at Portovaya Bay.[42]

The laying of the first line was completed on 4 May 2011 (the last pipe put in place), while all underwater works on the first line were completed on 21 June 2011.[5] In August 2011, Nord Stream was connected with the OPAL pipeline.[43] First gas was pumped into the first line on 6 September 2011.[44]

The pipeline was officially inaugurated by the German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Russian President Dmitry Medvedev, French Prime Minister François Fillon, and Dutch Prime Minister Mark Rutte on 8 November 2011 at the ceremony held in Lubmin.[2][3][45] Construction of the second line was completed in August 2012 and it was inaugurated on 8 October 2012.[46]

Nord Stream 2 편집

In 2011, Nord Stream AG started evaluation of an expansion project consisting of two additional lines (later named Nord Stream 2) to double the annual capacity up to 110십억 세제곱미터 (3.9×10^12 cu ft)%s%s. In August 2012, Nord Stream AG applied to the Finnish and Estonian governments for route studies in their underwater exclusive economic zones for the third and fourth lines.[47] A plan to route an additional pipeline to the United Kingdom was considered but abandoned.[48][49]

In January 2015, Gazprom announced that the expansion project had been put on hold since the existing lines were running at only half capacity, due to EU sanctions on Russia,[50] following its annexation of Crimea.

In June 2015, an agreement to build Nord Stream 2 was signed between Gazprom, Royal Dutch Shell, E.ON, OMV, and Engie.[51] As the creation of a joint venture was blocked by Poland,[모호한 표현] on 24 April 2017, Uniper, Wintershall, Engie, OMV and Royal Dutch Shell signed a financing agreement with Nord Stream 2 AG, a subsidiary of Gazprom responsible for the development of the Nord Stream 2 project.[52]

On 31 January 2018, Germany granted Nord Stream 2 a permit for construction and operation in German waters and for landfall areas near Lubmin.[53]

In May 2018 construction started at the Greifswald end point.[54]

In January 2019, the US ambassador in Germany, Richard Grenell, sent letters to companies involved in the construction of Nord Stream 2 urging them to stop working on the project and threatening them with the possibility of sanctions.[55] In December 2019, the Republican Senators Ted Cruz and Ron Johnson have also urged Allseas owner Edward Heerema to suspend the works on the pipeline, warning him that otherwise the United States would impose sanctions.[56]

On 21 December 2019, Allseas announced that the company had suspended its Nord Stream 2 pipelaying activities, anticipating enactment of the U.S. National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 containing sanctions.[57][58]

In May 2020, the German energy regulator refused an exception from competition rules that require Nord Stream 2 to separate gas ownership from transmission.[59] In August 2020, Poland fined Gazprom €50 million due to the latter's lack of cooperation with an investigation launched by UOKiK, the Polish anti-monopoly watchdog. UOKiK cited competition rules against Gazprom and companies that are financing the project, suspecting that they have continued to work on the pipeline without permission from the government of Poland.[60]

In December 2020, the Russian pipelaying ship Akademik Cherskiy continued pipe-laying.[61] In January, Fortuna, another pipe-layer joined forces with the Akademik Cherskiy to complete the pipeline.[62] On 4 June 2021, President Putin announced that the pipe-laying for first line of the Nord Stream 2 has been fully completed. On 10 June, the sections of the pipeline were connected.[63] The laying of the second line was completed in September 2021.[64]

In June 2021, U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken said that Nord Stream 2 completion was inevitable. In July 2021, the U.S. urged Ukraine not to criticise a forthcoming agreement with Germany over the pipeline.[65][66] On July 20, Joe Biden and Angela Merkel reached a conclusive deal that the U.S. may trigger sanctions if Russia uses Nord Stream as a "political weapon". The deal aims to prevent Poland and Ukraine from being cut off from Russian gas supplies. Ukraine will get a $50 million loan for green technology until 2024 and Germany will set up a billion dollar fund to promote Ukraine's transition to green energy to compensate the loss of the gas transit fees. The contract for transiting Russian gas through Ukraine will be prolonged until 2034, if the Russian government agrees.[67][68][69]

Technical features 편집

Russian onshore pipeline 편집

  이 부분의 본문은 Gryazovets–Vyborg gas pipeline입니다.
 
A piece of Nord Stream pipe on public display in Kotka, Finland.

Nord Stream is fed by the Gryazovets–Vyborg gas pipeline. It is a part of the integrated gas transport network of Russia connecting existing grid in Gryazovets with the coastal compressor station at Vyborg.[70] The length of this pipeline is 917 km (570 mi), the diameter of the pipe is 1,420 mm (56 in), and working pressure is 100 atm (10 MPa), which is secured by six compressor stations. The Gryazovets-Vyborg pipeline, parallel to the branch of the Northern Lights pipeline, also supplies gas to the Northwestern region of Russia (Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast).[71] The pipeline is operated by Gazprom Transgaz Saint Petersburg.[71]

To feed Nord Stream 2,866 km (1,781 mi) of new pipeline and three compressor stations were built, and five existing compressor stations were expanded.[72] The feeding pipeline starts in Gryazovets and follows the existing route of the Northern Lights pipeline. In Volkhov, the pipeline turns south and continues to the Slavyanskaya compressor station near Ust-Luga.[73]

Baltic Sea offshore pipeline 편집

 
The semi-submersible pipe-laying vessel Castoro Sei operating for Nord Stream in the Baltic Sea south-east of Gotland, Sweden in late March 2011.
 
Two pipes are welded together on the Castoro Sei pipelaying vessel.

The Nord Stream offshore pipeline is operated by Nord Stream AG.[17][27] It runs from Vyborg compressor station at Portovaya Bay along the bottom of the Baltic Sea to Greifswald in Germany. The length of the subsea pipeline is 1,222 km (759 mi), of which 1.5 km (0.93 mi) in Russian inland, 121.8 km (65.8 nmi) in Russian territorial waters, 1.4 km (0.8 nmi) in the Russian economic zone, 375.3 km (202.6 nmi) in the Finnish economic zone, 506.4 km (273.4 nmi) in the Swedish economic zone, 87.7 km (47.4 nmi) in the Danish territorial waters, 49.4 km (26.7 nmi) in the Danish economic zone, 31.2 km (16.8 nmi) in the German economic zone, 49.9 km (26.9 nmi) in German territorial waters and 0.5 km (0.31 mi) in German inland.[74] The pipeline has two parallel lines, both with capacity of 27.5십억 세제곱미터 (970×10^9 cu ft)%s%s of natural gas per year.[7] Pipes have a diameter of 1,220 mm (48 in), a wall thickness of 26.8 to 41 mm (other specification 38 mm (1.50 in)) and a working pressure of 220 bar (22 MPa; 3,200 psi).[17]

Nord Stream 2 starts at the Slavyanskaya compressor station near Ust-Luga port, located 2.8 km (1.7 mi) south-east of the village of Bolshoye Kuzyomkino (Narvusi) in the Kingiseppsky District of the Leningrad Oblast, in the historical Ingria close to the Estonian border. A 3.2 km (2.0 mi) onshore pipeline runs from the compressor station to the landfall at the Kurgalsky Peninsula on the shore of Narva Bay.[75][72] Also the landfall point in Kolganpya (Kolkanpää) at the Soikinsky Peninsula was considered as an alternative.[72] Except the Russian section, the route of Nord Stream 2 follows mainly the route of Nord Stream.[48][72] From the Russian landfall, a 114 km (71 mi) section runs through Russian territorial waters to the Finnish exclusive economic zone. The Finnish section is 374 km (232 mi) and the following section in the Swedish exclusive economic zone is 510 km (320 mi) long.[75] The 147 km (91 mi) Danish sections runs on the Danish continental shelf southeast of Bornholm.[9] The German part of the pipeline consists of 85 km (53 mi) of offshore pipeline and 29 km (18 mi) onshore pipeline connecting the landfall with the Nord Stream 2 receiving terminal.[75] Nord Stream 2 has two parallel lines, both with capacity of 27.5십억 세제곱미터 (970×10^9 cu ft)%s%s of natural gas per year.[8][75]

Middle and Western European pipelines 편집

  이 부분의 본문은 OPAL pipeline 및 NEL pipeline입니다.

Nord Stream is connected to two transmission pipelines in Germany. The southern pipeline (OPAL pipeline) runs from Greifswald to Olbernhau near the German-Czech border. It connects Nord Stream with JAGAL (connected to the Yamal-Europe pipeline), and STEGAL (connected to the Russian gas transport route via Czechia and Slovakia) transmission pipelines. The Gazelle pipeline, put into operation in January 2013,[76] links the OPAL pipeline with South-German gas network.

The western pipeline (NEL pipeline) runs from Greifswald to Achim, where it is connected with the Rehden-Hamburg gas pipeline.[77] Together with the MIDAL pipeline it creates the Greifswald–Bunde connection. Further gas delivery to the United Kingdom is made through the connection between Bunde and Den Helder, and from there through the offshore interconnector Balgzand–Bacton (BBL Pipeline).

Gazprom has also bought an abandoned mine (Hinrichshagen Structure) in Waren, which it plans to convert into the largest underground gas storage in Europe with capacity of 5십억 세제곱미터 (180×10^9 cu ft)%s%s.[78][79]

Nord Stream 2 would be connected to the NEL pipeline and European Gas Pipeline Link (EUGAL).[75]

Supply sources 편집

 
Countries by natural gas proven reserves (2014), based on data from The World Factbook. Russia has the world's largest reserves.

The main source of natural gas for the Nord Stream pipeline is Yuzhno-Russkoye field, which is located in the Krasnoselkupsky District, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Tyumen Oblast.[80][81][82] Nord Stream is also fed from fields in Yamal Peninsula, Ob-Taz bay. Gazprom has also indicated that the majority of gas produced at the Shtokman field would be sold to Europe via the Nord Stream pipeline. For this purpose, the pipeline from the Shtokman field via Kola peninsula to Volkhov or Vyborg in the Leningrad Oblast has to be built.[83]

Costs and financing 편집

According to Gazprom, the costs of the onshore pipelines in Russia and Germany were around €6 billion.[84] The offshore section of the project cost €8.8 billion.[85] 30% of the financing was raised through equity provided by shareholders in proportion to their stakes in the project, while 70% came from external financing by banks.[86]

There were two tranches.[87][88] The first tranche for a €3.9 billion includes a 3.1 billion, 16-year facility covered by export credit agencies and an €800 million, 10-year uncovered commercial loan to be serviced by earnings from the transportation contracts. A €1.6 billion is covered by French credit insures company Euler Hermes, a €1 billion by the German United Loan Guarantee Programme UFK, and a €500 million Italian Export Credit Agency SACE SpA. Loans to be provided by 26 commercial banks. Crédit Agricole is documentation bank and bank facility agent. Société Générale is intercreditor agent, Sace facility agent, security trustee and model bank. Commerzbank is Hermes facility agent, UniCredit is UFK facility agent, Deutsche Bank is account bank and Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation is technical and environmental bank.[86][87] The financial advisers were Société Générale, Royal Bank of Scotland (ABN Amro), Dresdner Kleinwort (Commerzbank), and Unicredit.[89][90] The legal adviser to Nord Stream was White & Case and legal adviser for the lenders was Clifford Chance.[87]

For Nord Stream 2, the loan from Uniper, Wintershall Dea, OMV, Engie, and Royal Dutch Shell covers 50% of the project costs of €9.5 billion. The rest is being financed by Gazprom.[52]

Contractors 편집

The environmental impact assessment was carried out by Rambøll and Environmental Resource Management. The route and seabed surveys were conducted by Marin Mätteknik, IfAÖ, PeterGaz and DOF Subsea.[91][92]

Work preliminary front-end engineering was done by Intec Engineering.[93] The design engineering of the subsea pipeline was done by Snamprogetti (now part of Saipem) and the pipeline was constructed by Saipem.[19][21] Saipem gave sub-contract to Allseas for laying more than 1/4 of both the pipelines. The seabed was prepared for the laying of the pipeline by a joint venture of Royal Boskalis Westminster and Tideway.[26] The pipes were provided by EUROPIPE, OMK, and Sumitomo.[22][24] Concrete weight coating and logistics services were provided by EUPEC PipeCoatings S.A. For the concrete weight coating new coating plants were constructed in Mukran (Germany) and Kotka (Finland).[23] Rolls-Royce plc supplied eight aeroderivative gas turbines driving centrifugal compressors for front-end gas boosting at the Vyborg (Portovaya) gas compressor station.[25] Dresser-Rand Group supplied DATUM compressors and Siirtec Nigi SPA provided a gas treatment unit for the Portovaya station.[94][95]

For the construction period, Nord Stream AG created a logistic center in Gotland. Other interim stock yards are located in Mukran, in Kotka, in Hanko (Finland) and in Karlskrona (Sweden).[23]

Nord Stream 2 was laid by Allseas using pipe-laying vessels Pioneering Spirit and Solitaire,[96] except the part of German offshore section which was laid by Saipem's pipe-laying vessel C10.[75] Pipes were manufactured by EUROPIPE, OMK and the Chelyabinsk Pipe-Rolling Plant (Chelpipe), and were coated by Wasco Coatings Europe. Blue Water Shipping handled the transportation and storage of pipeline segments in Germany, Finland and Sweden for Wasco. A joint venture of Boskalis and Van Oord did rock placement at the preparatory stage of construction. Kvaerner did the civil and mechanical engineering of the onshore facilities in Russia.[75]

Project companies 편집

 
Nord Stream head-office building in Zug.

Nord Stream is operated by the special-purpose company Nord Stream AG, incorporated in Zug, Switzerland on 30 November 2005. Shareholders of the company are the Russian gas company Gazprom (51% of shares), German companies Wintershall Dea and PEG Infrastruktur AG (E.ON) (both 15.5%), the Dutch gas company Gasunie (9%), and the French gas company Engie (9%).[17][27] The Managing Director is Matthias Warnig and the chairman of the shareholders' committee is German ex-chancellor Gerhard Schröder.

Nord Stream 2 is developed and will be operated by Nord Stream 2 AG, which is a wholly owned subsidiary of Gazprom.[52] It is registered at the same place and has the same management as Nord Stream AG.

Transportation contracts 편집

On 13 October 2005 Gazprom signed a contract with German gas company Wingas, then a joint venture of Gazprom and Wintershall (subsidiary of BASF), to supply 9십억 세제곱미터 (320십억 세제곱피트) of natural gas per year for 25 years.[97] On 16 June 2006 Gazprom and Danish Ørsted A/S (then named DONG Energy) signed a 20-year contract for delivery of 1십억 세제곱미터 (35×10^9 cu ft)%s%s Russian gas per year to Denmark, while Ørsted will supply 600백만 세제곱미터 (21×10^9 cu ft)%s%s natural gas per year to the Gazprom's subsidiary, Gazprom Marketing and Trading, in the United Kingdom.[98] 1 October 2009 the companies signed a contract to double the delivery to Denmark.[99]

On 29 August 2006 Gazprom and E.ON Ruhrgas signed an agreement to extend current contracts on natural gas supplies and have signed a contract for an additional 4십억 세제곱미터 (140×10^9 cu ft)%s%s per year through the Nord Stream pipeline.[100] On 19 December 2006, Gazprom and Gaz de France (now GDF Suez) agreed to an additional 2.5십억 세제곱미터 (88×10^9 cu ft)%s%s gas supply through the Nord Stream.[101]

Controversies of Nord Stream 편집

The pipeline projects were criticized by some countries and environmental organizations (such as the World Wide Fund for Nature).[102][103][104][105][106]

Political aspects 편집

  Russia in the European energy sector 문서를 참고하십시오.
 
Major existing and planned natural gas pipelines supplying Russian gas to Europe. Germany imports 50% to 75% of its natural gas from Russia.[107]

Opponents have seen the pipeline as a move by Russia to bypass traditional transit countries (currently Ukraine, Slovakia, Czech Republic, Belarus and Poland).[108] Some transit countries are concerned that a long-term plan of the Kremlin is to attempt to exert political influence on them by threatening their gas supply without affecting supplies to Western Europe.[109][110] The fears are strengthened by the fact that Russia has refused to ratify the Energy Charter Treaty. Critics of Nord Stream say that Europe could become dangerously dependent on Russian natural gas, particularly since Russia could face problems meeting a surge in domestic as well as foreign demand.[111][112][113] Following several Russia–Ukraine gas disputes over gas prices, as well as foreign policy towards Eastern Europe, it has been noted that the gas supplies by Russia can be used as a political tool.[114]

A Swedish Defence Research Agency study, finished in March 2007, counted over 55 incidents since 1991, most with "both political and economic underpinnings".[112][113] In April 2006 Radosław Sikorski, then Poland's defence minister, compared the project to the infamous 1939 Nazi-Soviet Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. [115] In his book The New Cold War: Putin's Russia and the Threat to the West, published 2008, Edward Lucas stated that "though Nord Stream's backers insist that the project is business pure and simple, this would be easier to believe if it were more transparent."[112] In the report published by the Fridtjof Nansen Institute in 2008, Norwegian researcher Bendik Solum Whist noted that Nord Stream AG was incorporated in Switzerland, "whose strict banking secrecy laws makes the project less transparent than it would have been if based within the EU".[112] Secondly, the Russian energy sector "in general lacks transparency" and Gazprom "is no exception".[112]

The Russian response has been that the pipeline increases Europe's energy security, and that the criticism is caused by bitterness about the loss of significant transit revenues, as well as the loss of political influence that stems from the transit countries' ability to hold Russian gas supplies to Western Europe hostage to their local political agendas.[116] It would reduce Russia's dependence on the transit countries as for the first time it would link Russia directly to Western Europe.[111] According to Gazprom, the direct connection to Germany would decrease risks in the gas transit zones, including the political risk of cutting off Russian gas exports to Western Europe.[117]

An anti-trust investigation against Gazprom started in 2011 revealed a number of "abusive practices" the company applied against various recipients in the EU and Nord Stream 2 was criticized from this angle as strengthening Gazprom's position in the EU even more. European Commission officials expressed the view that "Nord Stream 2 does not enhance [EU] energy security".[118]

Sberbank's investment research division in 2018 voiced the same concerns from Russian stakeholders' perspective, specifically that the project's goals are exclusively political and corruption-related:[119]

Gazprom’s decisions make perfect sense if the company is assumed to be run for the benefit of its contractors, not for commercial profit. The Power of Siberia, Nord Stream 2 and Turkish Stream are all deeply value-destructive projects that will eat up almost half of Gazprom’s investments over the next five years. They are commonly perceived as being foisted on the company by the government pursuing a geopolitical agenda. A more important characteristic that they share, however, is the ability to employ a closely knit group of suppliers in Russia, with little outside supervision.

— Sberbank CIB, Russian Oil and Gas - Tickling Giants, 2018

Security and military aspects 편집

Swedish military experts and several politicians, including former Minister for Defence Mikael Odenberg, have stated that the pipeline may cause a security policy problem for Sweden.[120] According to Odenberg, the pipeline motivates Russian navy presence in the Swedish economic zone and the Russians can use this for military intelligence should they want to.[121] Finnish military scholar Alpo Juntunen has said that even though the political discussion over Nord Stream in Finland concentrates on the various ecological aspects, there are clearly military implications to the pipeline that are not discussed openly in Finland.[122] More political concerns were raised when Vladimir Putin stated that the ecological safety of the pipeline project will be ensured by using the Baltic Fleet of the Russian Navy.[123] German weekly Stern has reported that the fibre optic cable and repeater stations along the pipeline could theoretically also be used for espionage. Nord Stream AG asserted that a fibre-optic control cable was neither necessary nor technically planned.[124] The Economist warned that Europe is becoming more dependent on Russia while its own reserves decline.[125]

Deputy Chairman of the Board of Executive Directors of Gazprom Alexander Medvedev has dismissed these concerns, stating that "some objections are put forward that are laughable—political, military or linked to spying. That is really surprising because in the modern world ... it is laughable to say a gas pipeline is a weapon in a spy war."[126]

German Bundeswehr asked Nord Stream to change the planned route because the pipeline is laid close to a sea testing ground near Rügen, which is actively used for naval exercises.[출처 필요]

Economic aspects 편집

Russian and German officials have claimed that the pipeline leads to economic savings due to the elimination of transit fees (as transit countries would be bypassed), and a higher operating pressure of the offshore pipeline which leads to lower operating costs (by eliminating the necessity for expensive midway compressor stations).[127] According to Ukrtransgaz in 2011, Ukraine alone will lose natural gas transit fees of up to $720 million per year from Nord Stream 1.[128] According to the Naftogaz chairman in 2019, Ukraine will lose $3 billion per year of natural gas transit fees from Nord Stream 2.[129] Gazprom has stated that it will divert 20십억 세제곱미터 (710×10^9 cu ft)%s%s of natural gas transported through Ukraine to Nord Stream.[130] Opponents say that the maintenance costs of a submarine pipeline are higher than for an overland route. In 1998, former Gazprom chairman Rem Vyakhirev claimed that the project was economically unfeasible.[131]

As the Nord Stream pipeline crosses the waterway to Polish ports in Szczecin and Świnoujście, there were concerns that it will reduce the depth of the waterway leading to the ports.[132][133][134] However, in 2011, then-prime minister of Poland Donald Tusk, as well as several experts, confirmed that the Nord Stream pipeline does not block the development plans of Świnoujście and Szczecin ports.[134][135]

Environmental aspects 편집

The greatest environmental impact in connection with the pipeline results from the consumption of the transported gas, if it allows more imports to the EU. That would be in conflict with decarbonization efforts for climate protection. At a nominal capacity of 55십억 cubic metres per annum (1.9×10^12 cu ft/a)%s%s, each pipe pair can cause carbon emissions of 110 million tonnes 틀:Co2 annually.[136]

For the Portovaya compressor station at the Russian beginning of Nord Stream 1 with a rating of 366 megawatts, 틀:Co2 emissions of around 1.5백만 tonne (3.3십억 파운드) per annum are estimated,[137] not including compressor stations for the gas pipelines within Russia.

Since the pressure loss is the square of the flow velocity, dividing an unchanged gas transport volume between two Nord Stream systems could save around 3/4 of the pumping effort and presumably more than 1백만 tonne (2.2십억 파운드) of 틀:Co2 emissions could be avoided annually. Using the Umweltbundesamt's discounted 틀:Co2 damage costs of 180 euros / tonne,[138] this would, after a rough estimate,틀:By who[출처 필요] enable the third tube to be amortized within around 20 years from a global point of view. Possibly also the fourth tube could be amortized in the hypothetical case of an overall optimization of gas flow over various pipelines between Russia and the EU.

The production of over 2백만 tonne (4.4십억 파운드) of steel for the Nord Stream 2 tubes resulted in more than 3백만 tonne (6.6십억 파운드) of 틀:Co2 emissions, not including the concrete coating and the associated pipeline sections onshore.[출처 필요]

Before construction there were concerns that during construction the sea bed would be disturbed, dislodging World War II-era naval mines and toxic materials including mines, chemical waste, chemical munitions and other items dumped in the Baltic Sea in the past decades, and thereby toxic substances could surface from the seabed, damaging the Baltic's particularly sensitive ecosystem.[139][140][141][142][143] Swedish Environment Minister Andreas Carlgren demanded that the environmental analysis should include alternative ways of taking the pipeline across the Baltic, as the pipeline is projected to be passing through areas considered environmentally problematic and risky.[144] Sweden's three opposition parties called for an examination of the possibility of rerouting the pipeline onto dry land.[142] Finnish environmental groups campaigned to consider the more southern route, claiming that the sea bed is flatter and so construction would be more straightforward, and therefore potentially less disruptive to waste, including dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, littered on the sea bed.[145] Latvian president Valdis Zatlers said that Nord Stream was environmentally hazardous as, unlike the North Sea, there is no such water circulation in the Baltic Sea.[출처 필요] Ene Ergma, Speaker of the Riigikogu (Parliament of Estonia), warned that the pipeline work rips a canal in the seabed which will demand leveling the sand that lies along the way, atomizing volcanic formations and disposing of fill along the bottom of the sea, altering sea currents.[146]

The impact on bird and marine life in the Baltic Sea is also a concern, as the Baltic sea is recognized by the International Maritime Organization as a particularly sensitive sea area. The World Wide Fund for Nature requested that countries party to the Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission (HELCOM) safeguard the Baltic marine habitats, which could be altered by the implementation of the Nord Stream project.[105] Its Finnish branch said it might file a court case against Nord Stream AG if the company did not properly assess a potential alternative route on the southern side of Hogland. According to Nord Stream AG, this was not a suitable route for the pipeline because of the planned conservation area near Hogland, subsea cables, and a main shipping route.[104] Russian environmental organizations warned that the ecosystem in the Eastern part of the Gulf of Finland is the most vulnerable part of the Baltic Sea and assumed damage to the island territory of the planned Ingermanland nature preserve as a result of laying the pipeline.[146] Swedish environmental groups are concerned that the pipeline is planned to pass too closely to the border of the marine reserve near Gotland.[147] Greenpeace is also concerned that the pipeline would pass through several sites designated marine conservation areas.[148]

In April 2007, the Young Conservative League (YCL) of Lithuania started an online petition entitled "Protect the Baltic Sea While It’s Still Not Too Late!", translated into all state languages of the countries of the Baltic region.[149] On 29 January 2008 the Petitions Committee of the European Parliament organized a public hearing on the petition introduced by the leader of YCL – Radvile Morkunaite. On 8 July 2008, the European Parliament endorsed, by 542 votes to 60, a non-binding report calling on the European Commission to evaluate the additional impact on the Baltic Sea caused by the Nord Stream project.[150] The Riigikogu made a declaration on 27 October 2009, expressing "concern over the possible environmental impacts of the gas line" and emphasizing that international conventions have deemed "the Baltic Sea in an especially vulnerable environmental status".[106]

Russian officials described these concerns as far-fetched and politically motivated by opponents of the project. They argued that during the construction the seabed will be cleaned, rather than endangered. Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov has claimed that Russia fully respects the desire to provide for the 100% environmental sustainability of the project and that Russia is fully supportive of such an approach, and that all environmental concerns would be addressed in the process of environmental impact assessment.[151]

Concerns were raised, since originally Nord Stream AG planned on rinsing out the pipeline with 2.3 billion liters of a solution containing glutaraldehyde, which would be pumped afterward into the Baltic Sea. Nord Stream AG responded that glutaraldehyde would not be used, and even if the chemical were used, the effects would be brief and localized due to the speed with which the chemical breaks down once it comes in contact with water.[152]

One of the problems raised was that the Baltic Sea and particularly Gulf of Finland was heavily mined during World War I and II, with many mines still in the sea.[148] According to Marin Mätteknik around 85,000 mines were laid during the First and Second World Wars, of which only half have been recovered. A lot of munitions have also been dumped in this sea.[153] Critics of the pipeline voiced fears that the pipeline would disturb ammunition dumps. In November 2008 it was reported that the pipeline will run through old sea mine defense lines and that the Gulf of Finland is considered one of the most heavily mined sea areas in the world.[154] Sunken mines, which have been found on the pipeline route, lay primarily in international waters at a depth of more than 70 m (230 ft). Nord Stream AG detonated the mines underwater.[154]

Ethical issues 편집

The former Chancellor of Germany, Gerhard Schröder, and the President of Russia, Vladimir Putin, were strong advocates of the pipeline project during the negotiation phase. International media alluded to a past relationship between the Managing Director of Nord Stream AG, Matthias Warnig, himself a former East German secret police officer, and Vladimir Putin when he was a KGB agent in East Germany.[155][156][157][158] These allegations were denied by Matthias Warnig, who said that he had met Vladimir Putin for the first time in his life in 1991, when Putin was the head of the Committee for External Relations of the Saint Petersburg Mayor's Office.[158][159]

The agreement to build the pipeline was signed ten days before the German parliamentary election. On 24 October 2005, a few weeks before Schröder had stepped down as Chancellor, the German government guaranteed to cover €1 billion of the Nord Stream project cost, should Gazprom default on a loan. However, this guarantee expired at the end of 2006 without ever having been needed.[160] Soon after leaving the post of Chancellor of Germany, Gerhard Schröder agreed to head the shareholders' committee of Nord Stream AG. This has been widely described by German and international media as a conflict of interest,[161][162][163] the implication being that the pipeline project may have been pushed through for personal gain rather than for improving gas supplies to Germany. Information about the German government's guarantee was requested by the European Commission. No formal charges have been filed against any party despite years of exhaustive investigations.[160]

In February 2009, the Swedish prosecutor's office started an investigation based on suspicions of bribery and corruption after a college on the island of Gotland received a donation from Nord Stream. The 5 million Swedish kronor (US$574,000) donation was directed to a professor at Gotland University College who had previously warned that the Nord Stream pipeline would come too close to a sensitive bird zone.[164] The consortium has hired several former high-ranking officials, such as Ulrica Schenström, former undersecretary at the Swedish Prime Minister's office, and Dan Svanell, former press secretary for several politicians in the Swedish Social Democratic Party.[165] In addition, the former Prime Minister of Finland, Paavo Lipponen, had worked for Nord Stream as an adviser since 2008.[166]

Land-based alternatives 편집

On 11 January 2007, the Ministry of Trade and Industry of Finland made a statement on the environmental impact assessment programme of the Russia-Germany natural gas pipeline, in which it mentioned that alternative routes via the Baltic states, Kaliningrad and/or Poland might theoretically be shorter than the route across the Baltic Sea, would be easier to flexibly increase the capacity of the pipeline, and might have better financial results.[167] There were also calls from Sweden to consider rerouting the pipeline onto dry land.[142] Poland had proposed the construction of a second line of the Yamal–Europe pipeline, as well as the Amber pipeline through the Baltic states and Poland as land-based alternatives to the offshore pipeline. The Amber project foresees laying a natural gas pipeline across the Tver, Novgorod and Pskov oblasts in Russia and then through Latvia and Lithuania to Poland, where it would be re-connected to the Yamal–Europe pipeline.[11] Latvia has proposed using its underground gas storage facilities if the onshore route were to be used.[출처 필요] Proponents have claimed that the Amber pipeline would cost half as much as an underwater pipeline, would be shorter, and would have less environmental impact.[168] Critics of this proposal say that in this case it would be more expensive for the suppliers over the long-term perspective, because the main aim of the project is to reduce transit costs.[169] Nord Stream AG has responded that the Baltic Sea would be the only route for the pipeline and it will not consider an overland alternative.[170]

World War II graves 편집

A former member of the European Parliament from Estonia, Andres Tarand has raised the issue that the Nord Stream pipeline could disturb World War II graves dating from naval battles in 1941. A Nord Stream spokesman has stated that only one sunken ship is in the vicinity of the planned pipeline and added that it would not be disturbed.[171] However, on 16 July 2008 it was announced that one of DOF Subsea's seismic vessels had discovered during a survey for the planned Nord Stream pipeline, in Finland's exclusive economic zone in the Gulf of Finland, the wreck of a submarine with Soviet markings, believed to have sunk during World War II.[91]

In addition to the wreck of the Soviet submarine, there are sunken ships on the route of Nord Stream in the Bay of Greifswald and in the Gulf of Finland. The ship in the Bay of Greifswald is one of 20 sunk in 1715 by the Swedish navy to create a physical barrier across the shallow entrance to the Bay of Greifswald coastal lagoon.[172] Russian archaeologists claimed that the ship in the Gulf of Finland "was probably built in 1710 and sank during a raid aimed at conquering Finland" in 1713 during the reign of Peter the Great.[173]

Controversies of Nord Stream 2 편집

Political aspects 편집

In January 2018, United States Secretary of State Rex Tillerson stated that the U.S. and Poland opposed the Nord Stream 2 pipeline, seeing it as undermining Europe's energy security and stability.[174] The Nord Stream 2 pipeline was also opposed by former Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko, Polish Prime Minister Mateusz Morawiecki, former U.S. President Donald Trump, the European Council President Donald Tusk and British foreign minister Boris Johnson.[175][176] Tusk has said that Nord Stream 2 is not in the EU's interests.[177] Former Italian Prime Minister Matteo Renzi and Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán have questioned the different treatment of Nord Stream 2 and South Stream projects.[177][178] Some claim that the project violates the long-term declared strategy of the EU to diversify its gas supplies.[179] A letter, signed by the leaders of nine EU countries, was sent to the EC in March 2016, warning that the Nord Stream 2 project contradicts the European energy policy requirements that suppliers to the EU should not control the energy transmission assets, and that access to the energy infrastructure must be secured for non-consortium companies.[180][181] A letter by American lawmakers John McCain and Marco Rubio to the EU also criticized the project in July 2016.[182]

Sanctions 편집

 
Angela Merkel criticized the United States's sanctions against Russia that target EU–Russia energy projects.[183]

On January 1, 2021, an annual defense policy bill passed by the U.S. Congress included sanctions for companies who worked on or insured the pipeline.[58][184] On 26 January 2021, the White House said that Joe Biden "continues to believe that Nord Stream 2 is a bad deal for Europe" and that his administration "will be reviewing" the new sanctions. According to congressional aides cited in a February report by NBC News, the sanctions enjoy "strong bipartisan support" on Capitol Hill.[185][186][187]

In June 2017, Germany, France, Austria and European Commission criticized the United States Senate over new sanctions against Russia targeting the pipeline,[188][189][190] stating that the United States was threatening Europe's energy supplies.[191] In a joint statement, Austrian Chancellor Christian Kern and German Foreign Minister Sigmar Gabriel said, "Europe's energy supply is a matter for Europe, and not for the United States of America."[192] They also said: "To threaten companies from Germany, Austria and other European states with penalties on the U.S. market if they participate in natural gas projects such as Nord Stream 2 with Russia or finance them introduces a completely new and very negative quality into European-American relations."[193] Isabelle Kocher, chief executive officer of Engie, criticised American sanctions targeting the projects, and said they were an attempt to promote American gas in Europe.[194] German Finance Minister Olaf Scholz called the sanctions "a severe intervention in German and European internal affairs", while the EU spokesman criticized "the imposition of sanctions against EU companies conducting legitimate business."[195] German Foreign Minister Heiko Maas tweeted that "European energy policy is decided in Europe, not in the United States". Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov also criticized sanctions, saying that United States Congress "is literally overwhelmed with the desire to do everything to destroy" Russia–United States relations.[196] The German Eastern Business Association said in a statement that "America wants to sell its liquefied gas in Europe, for which Germany is building terminals. Should we arrive at the conclusion that U.S. sanctions are intended to push competitors out of the European market, our enthusiasm for bilateral projects with the U.S. will significantly cool."[197]

Sanctions were lifted on 19 May 2021.[198][199][200] Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergei Ryabkov welcomed the move as "a chance for a gradual transition toward the normalisation of our bilateral ties".[201] Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky said he was "surprised" and "disappointed" by Biden's decision.[202]

Public opinion 편집

A representative Forsa study conducted in May 2021 found that 75% of Germans are in favour of the construction of Nord Stream 2, while only 17% are against it.[203] The survey found that broad support for the completion of the project can be found in all voter groups.[203] The Ost-Ausschuss der Deutschen Wirtschaft (Committee on Eastern European Economic Relations) criticised that US sanctions and obstruction efforts are thus threatening democratic processes in Germany and Europe, endangering Germany's interests, and causing damages estimated to be several billion euros at the expense of European taxpayers and businesses.[204]

Public support for Nord Stream 2 by party (May 2021)
DIE LINKE
  
 92%
AfD
  
 84%
FDP
  
 82%
CDU/CSU
  
 81%
SPD
  
 75%
B'90/GRÜNE
  
 69%

In March 2021,[205] Germany left nuclear power energy and chose to move towards to a low-carbon economy. Consequently, Germany begun to compensate its Energiewende with an increased natural gas supply.[206]

Legal aspects 편집

According to the amended EU gas directive, the EU extends its gas market rules to external pipelines entering to the EU internal gas market. It applies to all pipelines which were completed after 23 May 2019 when amended directive entered into force.[207][208] Additional legal concerns relate to international trade law[209] and to the law of the sea in connection with Nord Stream 2's route through the Danish territorial waters around Bornholm.[210]

Nord Stream 2 AG has started the legal proceeding in the Court of Justice of the European Union to annul the amended directive and has started the arbitration against the EU under the Energy Charter Treaty.[207][211] Although Russia has not ratified the Energy Charter Treaty and has terminated its provisional application, both the EU and Switzerland - a domicile of Nord Stream 2 AG—are contracting parties of it.

See also 편집

 Energy 포털
 Russia 포털
 Engineering 포털
 Transport 포털
 Economy 포털

References 편집

  1. ↑ Kuzmin, Andrey (2019년 12월 21일). “Russia to go ahead with gas pipe project despite U.S. sanctions”. 《Reuters》. 2020년 9월 3일에 확인함. 
  2. ↑ 가 나 “Controversial Project Launched: Merkel and Medvedev Open Baltic Gas Pipeline”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2011년 11월 8일. 2011년 11월 8일에 확인함. 
  3. ↑ 가 나 Wiesmann, Gerrit (2011년 11월 8일). “Russia-EU gas pipeline delivers first supplies”. 《Financial Times》. 2011년 11월 8일에 확인함. 
  4. ↑ “Nord Stream Passes Ships and Bombs”. 《The Moscow Times》. Bloomberg. 2011년 5월 5일. 2011년 9월 10일에 확인함. 
  5. ↑ 가 나 Gloystein, Henning (2011년 5월 4일). “Nord Stream to finish 1st gas pipeline Thursday”. 《Reuters》. 2010년 5월 26일에 확인함. 
  6. ↑ Gardner, Timothy (2019년 12월 17일). “Bill imposing sanctions on companies building Russian gas pipeline heads to White House”. 《Reuters》. 2019년 12월 22일에 확인함. 
  7. ↑ 가 나 Zhdannikov, Dmitry; Pinchuk, Denis (2008년 12월 12일). “Russia's Gazprom to expand Nord Stream gas pipeline with E.ON, Shell, OMV”. 《Reuters》. 2015년 6월 19일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 6월 19일에 확인함. 
  8. ↑ 가 나 Gurzu, Anca (2019년 10월 30일). “Nord Stream 2 clears final hurdle – but delays loom”. 《Politico》. 2019년 12월 23일에 확인함. 
  9. ↑ 가 나 Elliott, Stuart (2019년 12월 4일). “Nord Stream 2 construction in Danish waters under way: contractor”. 《S&P Global Platts》. 2019년 12월 23일에 확인함. 
  10. ↑ 가 나 “Fortum sells its stake in North Transgas to Gazprom” (보도 자료). Fortum. 2005년 5월 18일. 2008년 2월 15일에 확인함. 
  11. ↑ 가 나 “Project Information Document – Offshore pipeline through the Baltic Sea” (PDF). Nord Stream AG. November 2006. 2012년 5월 14일에 확인함. 
  12. ↑ “Pipeline Report” (PDF). Scientific Surveys. June 2001. 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  13. ↑ “Gazprom takes control of North Transgas”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2005년 5월 18일. 2011년 11월 24일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  14. ↑ “Gazprom launches construction of onshore section of North European Gas Pipeline” (보도 자료). Gazprom. 2005년 12월 9일. 2007년 8월 3일에 확인함. 
  15. ↑ “Nord Stream: Historical Background”. Gazprom. 2008년 1월 15일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 8월 3일에 확인함. 
  16. ↑ Ликвидировано 100-процентное дочернее предприятие "Газпрома" в Финляндии [Gazprom's 100% owned daughter company in Finland is dissolved] (러시아어). RusEnergy. 2007년 1월 30일. 2008년 2월 15일에 확인함. 
  17. ↑ 가 나 다 라 “Nord Stream. Facts & Figures”. Nord Stream AG. 2011년 1월 4일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 4월 6일에 확인함. 
  18. ↑ “Start of Public Participation throughout Baltic Sea Region on Nord Stream Pipeline Project” (보도 자료). Nord Stream AG. 2009년 3월 9일. 2016년 4월 26일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2016년 4월 26일에 확인함. 
  19. ↑ 가 나 “Leading engineering company to prepare detailed design” (PDF). 《Nord Stream Facts》 (Nord Stream AG) (1). April 2007. 2008년 11월 17일에 확인함. [깨진 링크]
  20. ↑ “Saipem bags Nord Stream work”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2007년 9월 17일. 2007년 9월 30일에 확인함. 
  21. ↑ 가 나 Simpson, Ian (2008년 6월 24일). “Saipem wins 1 bln euro Nord Stream contract”. 《Reuters》. 2008년 7월 11일에 확인함. 
  22. ↑ 가 나 “Nord Stream decided on Pipe Tender” (보도 자료). Wintershall. 2007년 9월 25일. 2011년 6월 6일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 9월 30일에 확인함. 
  23. ↑ 가 나 다 “Sustainable Investment in Logistics around the Baltic Region”. Rigzone. 2008년 2월 18일. 2008년 2월 19일에 확인함. 
  24. ↑ 가 나 Soldatkin, Vladimir (2010년 1월 23일). “Nord Stream awards 1 bln euros tender for gas link”. 《Reuters》. 2010년 2월 18일에 확인함. 
  25. ↑ 가 나 “Gazprom Awards Compressor Contract for Nord Stream Pipeline to Rolls-Royce” (보도 자료). Rolls-Royce plc. 2008년 12월 30일. 2009년 1월 11일에 확인함 – Rigzone 경유. 
  26. ↑ 가 나 “Boskalis Wins Nord Stream, Saudi Contracts”. 《Rigzone》. AFX News Limited. 2009년 1월 9일. 2011년 5월 5일에 확인함. 
  27. ↑ 가 나 다 Kim, Lucian; Walters, Greg (2007년 11월 6일). “Gazprom Picks Dutch Company for Northern Gas Pipeline”. Bloomberg. 2016년 4월 26일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2016년 4월 26일에 확인함. 
  28. ↑ “Gasunie joins Nord Stream as shareholder”. RBC. 2008년 6월 20일. 2008년 6월 23일에 확인함. 
  29. ↑ Boselli, Muriel (2010년 3월 1일). “GDF Suez, Gazprom sign Nord Stream pipeline deal”. 《Reuters》. 2010년 3월 1일에 확인함. 
  30. ↑ “GDF Suez SA has received 9% in Nord Stream”. Rusmergers. 2010년 8월 11일. 2012년 3월 16일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2011년 5월 26일에 확인함. 
  31. ↑ “Nord Stream Consortium Hires Former Finnish Premier”. 《Rigzone》. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2008년 8월 15일. 2008년 8월 19일에 확인함. 
  32. ↑ “Swedish Govt Receives Baltic Pipeline Plans”. Downstream Today. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2007년 12월 21일. 2010년 11월 21일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 12월 26일에 확인함. 
  33. ↑ Ringstrom, Anna (2008년 2월 12일). “Sweden says application for Baltic pipeline incomplete”. 《Reuters》. 2008년 2월 15일에 확인함. 
  34. ↑ “Sweden unimpressed by Baltic pipeline proposal”. 《The Local》. 2008년 2월 12일. 2008년 2월 15일에 확인함. 
  35. ↑ “Nord Stream gas pipeline gets Danish clearance”. 《Reuters》. 2009년 10월 20일. 2009년 11월 1일에 확인함. 
  36. ↑ Johnson, Simon; Lamppu, Eva; Korsunskaya, Darya; Wasilewski, Patryk; Baczynska, Gabriela (2009년 11월 5일). “Nord Stream pipeline gets nod from Sweden, Finland”. 《Reuters》. 2009년 11월 7일에 확인함. 
  37. ↑ “Nord Stream Wins Final Clearance”. 《The Moscow Times》. 2010년 2월 15일. 2010년 2월 17일에 확인함. 
  38. ↑ Young, Brett; Kinnunen, Terhi (2010년 2월 12일). “Nord Stream cleared to start construction in April”. 《Reuters》. 2010년 2월 18일에 확인함. 
  39. ↑ “Gazprom starts Nord Stream launch point”. Upi. 2010년 1월 15일. 2010년 1월 19일에 확인함. 
  40. ↑ “Gazprom launches Portovaya compressor station construction” (보도 자료). Gazprom. 2010년 1월 15일. 2010년 1월 19일에 확인함. 
  41. ↑ Smith, Christopher E. (2011년 9월 8일). “Nord Stream natural gas pipeline begins line fill”. 《Oil & Gas Journal》 (PennWell Corporation). 2011년 9월 10일에 확인함. 
  42. ↑ Vorobyova, Toni (2010년 4월 9일). “Russia starts Nord Stream Europe gas route project”. 《Reuters》. 2010년 4월 10일에 확인함. 
  43. ↑ Blau, John (2011년 8월 26일). “Nord Stream pipeline now connected to German link”. Deutsche Welle. 2011년 9월 10일에 확인함. 
  44. ↑ “First gas for Nord Stream”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2011년 9월 6일. 2011년 9월 6일에 확인함. 
  45. ↑ Hromadko, Jan; Harriet, Torry (2011년 11월 8일). “Pipeline Opening Highlights Russian Energy Role”. 《The Wall Street Journal》. 2011년 11월 8일에 확인함. 
  46. ↑ Paszyc, Ewa (2012년 10월 10일). “Russia: Gazprom has activated Nord Stream's second pipeline”. 《EastWeek》. Centre for Eastern Studies. 2012년 12월 9일에 확인함. 
  47. ↑ “Nord Stream seeks to study Estonian economic zone in Baltic until 2015”. 《Kyiv Post》. Interfax-Ukraine. 2012년 8월 27일. 2012년 9월 15일에 확인함. 
  48. ↑ 가 나 Nord Stream AG (2013). “Nord Stream Extension Project Information Document (PID)” (PDF). Ministry of the Environment of Estonia: 18. 2015년 6월 19일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 6월 19일에 확인함. 
  49. ↑ Loukashov, Dmitry (2008년 12월 12일). “Nord Stream: is the UK extension good for Gazprom?”. 《The Daily Telegraph》. 2015년 6월 19일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 6월 19일에 확인함. 
  50. ↑ Pinchuk, Denis (2015년 1월 28일). “Gazprom mothballs extension of Nord Stream pipeline”. 《Reuters》. 2015년 6월 19일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 6월 19일에 확인함. 
  51. ↑ Zhdannikov, Dmitry; Pinchuk, Denis (2008년 12월 12일). “Exclusive: Gazprom building global alliance with expanded Shell”. 《Reuters》. 2015년 6월 19일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 6월 19일에 확인함. 
  52. ↑ 가 나 다 Foy, Henry; Toplensky, Rochelle; Ward, Andrew (2017년 4월 24일). “Gazprom to receive funding for Nord Stream 2 pipeline”. 《Financial Times》. 2017년 4월 30일에 확인함. 
  53. ↑ “Germany grants permit for Nord Stream 2 Russian gas pipeline”. 《Reuters》. 2018년 1월 31일. 2018년 2월 14일에 확인함. 
  54. ↑ Janjevic, Darko (2018년 7월 14일). “Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline – What is the controversy about?”. 《Deutsche Welle》. 2018년 7월 18일에 확인함. 
  55. ↑ “US-Botschafter Grenell schreibt Drohbriefe an deutsche Firmen”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2018년 1월 13일. 
  56. ↑ “Sens. Cruz, Johnson Put Company Installing Putin's Pipeline on Formal Legal Notice” (보도 자료). Ted Cruz. 2020년 9월 16일에 확인함. 
  57. ↑ “Allseas suspends Nord Stream 2 pipelay activities” (보도 자료). Allseas. 2019년 12월 21일. 2019년 12월 21일에 확인함. 
  58. ↑ 가 나 “Nord Stream 2: Trump approves sanctions on Russia gas pipeline”. 《BBC News》. 2019년 12월 21일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  59. ↑ Dezem, Vanessa; Parkin, Brian (2020년 5월 4일). “German Regulator Set to Deny Nord Stream 2 Waiver From EU Rules”. 《Bloomberg News》. 2020년 5월 9일에 확인함. 
  60. ↑ “Poland fines Gazprom €50m over Nord Stream 2 pipeline”. 《Financial Times》. 2020년 8월 3일. 2020년 8월 4일에 확인함. 
  61. ↑ “Bau von Gaspipeline Nord Stream 2 geht wieder los” [Construction of Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline starts again]. 《Der Standard》 (독일어). 2020년 12월 9일. 2020년 12월 13일에 확인함. 
  62. ↑ Welle (www.dw.com), Deutsche. “Trotz US-Sanktionen: "Fortuna" arbeitet weiter an Nord Stream 2 | DW | 25.01.2021”. 《DW.COM》 (독일어). 2021년 7월 20일에 확인함. 
  63. ↑ “Строительство первой нитки «Северного потока-2» технически завершено” [Construction of the first line of Nord Stream 2 is technically completed]. 《Kommersant》 (러시아어). 2021년 6월 10일. 2021년 6월 10일에 확인함. 
  64. ↑ “«Газпром» объявил о завершении строительства «Северного потока — 2»”. 《Meduza》 (러시아어). 2021년 9월 10일에 확인함. 
  65. ↑ Woodruff, Betsy Swan; Ward, Alexander; Desiderio, Andrew (2021년 7월 20일). “U.S. urges Ukraine to stay quiet on Russian pipeline”. 《POLITICO》. 2021년 7월 21일에 확인함. 
  66. ↑ “U.S.-German Deal on Russia's Nord Stream 2 Pipeline Expected Soon”. 《Wall Street Journal》. 2021년 7월 20일. 2021년 7월 21일에 확인함. 
  67. ↑ Shalal, Andrea (2021년 7월 20일). “Germany to announce deal on Nord Stream 2 pipeline in coming days -sources”. 《Reuters》. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  68. ↑ “Nord Stream 2: Ukraine and Poland slam deal to complete controversial gas pipeline”. 《Euronews》. 2021년 7월 22일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  69. ↑ Williams, Aime; Olearchyk, Roman (2021년 7월 21일). “Germany and US reach truce over Nord Stream 2 pipeline”. 《Financial Times》. 2021년 9월 13일에 확인함. 
  70. ↑ “Answers to questions asked by representatives of non-governmental organizations on the EIA procedure for the Nord Stream Project” (PDF). Nord Stream AG. 2007년 10월 20일. 2008년 2월 15일에 확인함. 
  71. ↑ 가 나 “Nord Stream Gas Pipeline”. Gazprom. 2007년 7월 8일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 8월 3일에 확인함. 
  72. ↑ 가 나 다 라 Ramboll, Nord Stream AG (April 2017). “Espoo Report. Nord Stream 2” (PDF). Ministry of the Environment of Estonia: 79–80; 523. 2017년 5월 3일에 확인함. 
  73. ↑ Вид сверху: Газпром прорубает "Северный поток-2", древесина пропадает [View from the top: Gazprom cuts Nord Stream-2 through, wood disappears]. 《47 News》. 2018년 11월 13일. 2019년 12월 17일에 확인함. 
  74. ↑ “Nord Stream Espoo Report. Chapter 4: Description of the Project”. Nord Stream AG. 2009: 106. 2015년 6월 19일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2015년 6월 19일에 확인함. 
  75. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 “Nord Stream 2 Pipeline Project”. 《NS Energy》. 2019년 12월 23일에 확인함. 
  76. ↑ Czech Nord Stream natural gas link Gazela flowing at full capacity, ICIS 24 Apr 2013 retrieved 28 April 2013
  77. ↑ “Wingas plans Nord Stream double”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2007년 3월 27일. 2007년 9월 27일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 8월 3일에 확인함. 
  78. ↑ “Gazprom Plans Underground Storage Near Berlin”. Downstream Today. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. 2007년 11월 27일. 2012년 5월 23일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 11월 29일에 확인함. 
  79. ↑ “Gazprom plant Europas größtes Erdgaslager” [Gazprom plans European largest gas storage]. 《Welt Online》 (독일어). 2007년 11월 28일. 2007년 11월 29일에 확인함. 
  80. ↑ Philippa Runner (2009년 1월 21일). “Nord Stream to pump EU gas by 2011, Russia says”. EUobserver. 2009년 10월 10일에 확인함. 
  81. ↑ Elena Zhuk (January 2008). “Gazprom and BASF Start Joint Production at Yuzhno-Russkoye Gas Field”. 《Oil & Gas Eurasia》 (Eurasia Press, Inc.). 2008년 9월 8일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2009년 10월 10일에 확인함. 
  82. ↑ “Gas for Europe”. Nord Stream AG. 8 October 2009에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 10 October 2009에 확인함. 
  83. ↑ Jorn Madslien (2006년 10월 9일). “Shock as Russia goes solo on gas field”. 《BBC News》. 2007년 8월 3일에 확인함. 
  84. ↑ Dempsey, Judy (2007년 8월 23일). “Gazprom plans to re-route controversial European pipeline”. 《The New York Times》. 2011년 9월 10일에 확인함. 
  85. ↑ “Nord Stream more expensive”. Barents Observer. 2010년 3월 17일. 2011년 7월 7일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2010년 3월 18일에 확인함. 
  86. ↑ 가 나 Mangham, Christopher (2009년 10월 21일). “RLPC-Nord Stream project financing signing — sources”. 《Reuters》. 2009년 11월 1일에 확인함. 
  87. ↑ 가 나 다 “Nord Stream completes Phase I financing” (보도 자료). Gazprom. 2010년 3월 16일. 2010년 3월 18일에 확인함. 
  88. ↑ Leftly, Mark (2009년 3월 29일). “Gazprom in Nord Stream windfall”. 《The Independent》 (London). 2009년 4월 19일에 확인함. [깨진 링크]
  89. ↑ Bowman, Louise (2009년 4월 14일). “Nord Stream looks for flows in funding pipeline”. Euromoney. 2009년 4월 19일에 확인함. 
  90. ↑ Reilly, Alasdair; Mangham, Christopher (2009년 10월 21일). “RLPC-Nord Stream project financing nears agreement-sources”. 《Reuters》. 2009년 11월 1일에 확인함. 
  91. ↑ 가 나 “Nord Stream survey finds Soviet sub”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2008년 7월 17일. 2008년 7월 18일에 확인함. 
  92. ↑ “Nord Stream Project Well On Track” (보도 자료). Wintershall. 2008년 10월 21일. 2011년 6월 6일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2008년 11월 17일에 확인함. 
  93. ↑ Clark, Judy; Rach, Nina (2006년 10월 10일). “Gazprom to develop Shtokman alone, pipe gas to Europe”. 《Oil & Gas Journal》 (PennWell Corporation). 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  94. ↑ “Dresser-Rand bags $200m in contracts”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2009년 1월 13일. 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  95. ↑ Izundu, Uchenna (2009년 3월 5일). “Nord Stream lets gas treatment unit”. 《Oil & Gas Journal》 (PennWell Corporation). 2009년 4월 19일에 확인함. 
  96. ↑ Elliott, Stuart (2019년 12월 21일). “Nord Stream 2 pipelayer Allseas suspends operations on US sanctions”. 《S&P Global Platts》. 2019년 12월 22일에 확인함. 
  97. ↑ “Gazexport and WINGAS agree upon first deliveries of natural gas through the Northern European Gas Pipeline” (보도 자료). Wingas. 2005년 10월 13일. 2011년 7월 19일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2008년 2월 16일에 확인함. 
  98. ↑ “Gazprom to deliver gas to Denmark via North European Gas Pipeline” (PDF) (보도 자료). Ørsted A/S. 2006년 6월 19일. 2007년 12월 16일에 확인함. 
  99. ↑ Peter Levring (2009년 10월 1일). “Dong Energy says to double Gazprom gas deliveries from 2012”. 《Reuters》. 2009년 11월 7일에 확인함. 
  100. ↑ “Gazprom and E.ON prolong the existing contracts and sign contract for gas sypply via the NEGP” (보도 자료). Gazprom. 2006년 8월 29일. 2008년 5월 18일에 확인함. [깨진 링크]
  101. ↑ “Gaz de France and Gazprom Extend Their Natural Gas Supply Agreements until 2030”. Oil Voice. 2006년 12월 19일. 2007년 12월 16일에 확인함. 
  102. ↑ Kotlowski, Aleksander (2009년 6월 9일). “Russian Energy Strategy and Transit Routes in Eastern Europe — A View from Warsaw”. 《Oil, Gas & Energy Law Intelligence》 7 (2 (special issue on 'EU – Russia relations')) (MARIS B.V.). ISSN 1875-418X. 2009년 6월 9일에 확인함. 
  103. ↑ Schmid, Fidelius; Proissl, Wolfgang (2006년 10월 29일). “US criticises Russia-Germany gas deal”. 《Financial Times》. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  104. ↑ 가 나 Kinnunen, Terhi (2008년 1월 15일). “Finnish court actions could delay Baltic gas link”. 《Reuters》. 2008년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  105. ↑ 가 나 “Risk Assessment and an Environmental Impact Assessment for the North European Gas Pipeline Project (NEGP)” (PDF). HELCOM. 2005년 10월 3일. 2016년 6월 5일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2016년 6월 5일에 확인함. 
  106. ↑ 가 나 Riigikogu avaldus. Läänemerre kavandatava gaasijuhtmega seotud keskkonnariskidest Declaration of the Riigikogu. On environmental hazards connected with the gas line planned into the Baltic Sea. In Estonian. The Riigikogu 27 October 2009
  107. ↑ “Trump: How much of Germany's gas comes from Russia?”. 《BBC News》. 2018년 7월 11일. 
  108. ↑ Cohen, Ariel (2006년 10월 26일). “The North European Gas Pipeline Threatens Europe's Energy Security” (PDF). Heritage Foundation. 2010년 10월 4일에 확인함. 
  109. ↑ “New Twists and Turns in German-Russian Gas Pipeline Saga”. Deutsche Welle. 2007년 7월 13일. 2007년 8월 3일에 확인함. 
  110. ↑ “Delays hit Nord Stream plans”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2007년 11월 6일. 2008년 10월 12일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 11월 10일에 확인함. 
  111. ↑ 가 나 Dempsey, Judy (2008년 5월 6일). “Gas pipeline under the Baltic faces many hurdles”. 《The New York Times》. 2008년 5월 18일에 확인함. 
  112. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 Solum Whist, Bendik (November 2008). “Nord Stream: Not Just a Pipeline” (PDF). Fridtjof Nansen Institute. 2011년 7월 20일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2009년 11월 7일에 확인함. 
  113. ↑ 가 나 Larsson, Robert L. (March 2007). “Nord Stream, Sweden and Baltic Sea Security” (PDF). 《Proceedings of the ... Swedish American Workshop on Modeling and Simulation : Sawmas》 (Swedish Defence Research Agency). ISSN 1650-1942. 2010년 6월 14일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2009년 11월 7일에 확인함. 
  114. ↑ Boyes, Roger (2009년 1월 7일). “Gazprom is not a market player, it's a political weapon”. 《The Times》 (London). 2009년 1월 7일에 확인함. 
  115. ↑ “Polish Defense Minister's Pipeline Remark Angers Germany”. Voice of America Online. 2006년 5월 3일. 2010년 10월 4일에 확인함. 
  116. ↑ “Baltic deal worries Polish press”. BBC News. 2005년 9월 8일. 2008년 3월 18일에 확인함. 
  117. ↑ “Gazprom—Strategy for the Energy Sector Leadership. Speech by Alexey Miller at the Gazprom's annual general shareholders' meeting”. Gazprom. 2006년 6월 30일. 2007년 9월 28일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  118. ↑ “EU documents lay bare Russian energy abuse” (영어). 2018년 4월 16일에 확인함. 
  119. ↑ Sberbank CIB (2018). “Russian Oil and Gas - Tickling Giants” (PDF). 
  120. ↑ Bakst, Alex (2006년 11월 15일). “Baltic Sea Pipeline: Sweden Afraid of Russian Spooks”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2008년 5월 18일에 확인함. 
  121. ↑ “Rysk gasledning säkerhetspolitiskt problem (Russian gas pipeline is a security problem)”. 《Dagens Nyheter》 (스웨덴어). 2006년 11월 14일. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  122. ↑ “Soome dotsent: Nord Streamil on sõjaline tähendus” [Nord Stream has military implications]. 《Postimees》 (에스토니아어). 2009년 1월 10일. 2009년 1월 10일에 확인함. 
  123. ↑ “Russian navy to ensure Nord Stream ecology—Putin”. Interfax. 2006년 10월 25일. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  124. ↑ Tillack, Hans-Martin (2008년 2월 13일). “Schröders Pipeline. Spionagekanal in der Ostsee? (Schröder's pipeline. Espionage channel in the Baltic Sea?)”. 《Stern》 (독일어). 2008년 5월 18일에 확인함. 
  125. ↑ H.T. (2018년 8월 7일). “Why Nord Stream 2 is the world's most controversial energy project”. 《The Economist》. 2018년 8월 7일에 확인함. it also makes Europe more dependent on Russian gas and pipelines at a time when its own supplies are dwindling. 
  126. ↑ “Gazprom seeking Shtokman partners”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2007년 7월 28일. 2007년 9월 27일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  127. ↑ “Nord Stream. Questions and Answers. Economic and Financial aspects”. Nord Stream AG. 2007년 2월 1일. 2007년 4월 6일에 확인함. [깨진 링크]
  128. ↑ “Nord Stream costs Ukraine $720 million”. UPI. 2011년 5월 20일. 2011년 5월 26일에 확인함. 
  129. ↑ “Ukraine to lose $3 billion a year if Nord Stream 2 is built - Kobolev”. Ukrinform. 2019년 7월 24일. 2019년 7월 24일에 확인함. 
  130. ↑ Bachman, Jessica (2011년 5월 25일). “Russia to divert 20 bcm of gas from Ukraine to Nord Stream”. 《Reuters》. 2011년 5월 26일에 확인함. 
  131. ↑ Grib, Natalya (2007년 7월 12일). “Plus Gasification of Entire Europe”. 《Kommersant》. 2007년 9월 30일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 8월 26일에 확인함. 
  132. ↑ “A Terminal Disagreement Between Poland and Germany”. 2010년 9월 7일. 2011년 10월 8일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2011년 9월 6일에 확인함. 
  133. ↑ Sobczyk, Marcin (2010년 1월 25일). “Poland Sits Still as Nord Stream Prepares to Block Sea Port”. 《The Wall Street Journal》. 2011년 9월 6일에 확인함. 
  134. ↑ 가 나 Melck, Brendan (2011년 5월 16일). “Squeezed by Nord Stream”. 《Warsaw Business Journal》. 2012년 3월 29일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2011년 9월 6일에 확인함. 
  135. ↑ “Poland: PM Says Nord Stream Will Not Block Development of Polish Ports”. 《LNG World News》. 2011년 6월 22일. 2011년 9월 6일에 확인함. 
  136. ↑ Conversion with 10.1 kWh/m3 and 0.056 t 틀:Co2/GJ
  137. ↑ http://www.gazprom.de/projects/nord-stream/ Retrieved on 7 September 2020, with 40% efficiency of the gas turbines
  138. ↑ “Hohe Kosten durch unterlassenen Umweltschutz”. 《Umweltbundesamt》. 2018년 11월 20일. 
  139. ↑ “Final Report of the ad hoc Working Group on Dumped Chemical Munition (HELCOM CHEMU) to the 16th Meeting of the Helsinki Commission” (PDF). HELCOM. March 1995. 2007년 7월 5일에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  140. ↑ “Tons of Mercury Found in the Baltic Sea. Europe's Underwater Chemical Dump”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2006년 8월 30일. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  141. ↑ McGroarty, Patrick (2008년 1월 2일). “Bad News Blooms in the Baltic: Can a New Cleanup Plan Save the Sea”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2008년 5월 18일에 확인함. 
  142. ↑ 가 나 다 “Gazprom Standing By Nord Stream Plans”. Downstream Today. UPI. 2007년 11월 27일. 2007년 11월 28일에 확인함. 
  143. ↑ “Activists Say 500,000 Tonnes of Chemical Weapons in Baltic”. 《Yle》. 2010년 3월 25일. 2020년 10월 4일에 확인함. 
  144. ↑ “Nord Stream hits Swedish hurdle”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2007년 10월 31일. 2008년 2월 24일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 11월 10일에 확인함. 
  145. ↑ Terhi Kinnunen (2008년 1월 21일). “Finland tells Nord Stream to study alternative routes”. 《Reuters》. 2008년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  146. ↑ 가 나 Galina Raguzina (2007년 11월 2일). “While Nord Stream embraces Russia, Estonia will not embrace Nord Stream”. Bellona. 2008년 11월 18일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2008년 8월 9일에 확인함. 
  147. ↑ Schäfer, Torsten (2007년 2월 17일). “Baltic Sea Gas Pipeline Meets European Resistance”. Deutsche Welle. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  148. ↑ 가 나 Hotten, Russell (2008년 2월 21일). “What's in the pipeline for Nord Stream?”. 《The Daily Telegraph》 (London). 2008년 11월 7일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2008년 8월 9일에 확인함. 
  149. ↑ Galina Raguzina (2007년 6월 1일). “Nord Stream gas pipeline a danger for the Baltic ecology”. Bellona. 2008년 11월 18일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2007년 11월 10일에 확인함. 
  150. ↑ Pete Harrison (2008년 7월 8일). “EU lawmakers demand probe of Baltic gas pipeline”. 《Reuters》. 2008년 7월 11일에 확인함. 
  151. ↑ “Russia backs green Nord Stream”. 《Upstream Online》 (NHST Media Group). 2007년 6월 13일. 2007년 8월 2일에 확인함. 
  152. ↑ “Baltic Sea Pipeline Keeps Losing Friends”. 《Bloomberg》. 2008년 2월 25일. 2008년 5월 18일에 확인함. 
  153. ↑ “ROV survey tool searches for mines along Baltic pipeline”. 《Offshore》 (PennWell Corporation) 68 (3). 2008년 3월 1일. 2011년 9월 30일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2010년 10월 4일에 확인함. 
  154. ↑ 가 나 “Wartime Mines To Be Cleared from Nord Stream Route”. 《Helsingin Sanomat》 (Downstream Today). 2008년 11월 29일. 2010년 11월 21일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2009년 1월 11일에 확인함. 
  155. ↑ “My President Went to Bratislava and All I Got Was This Lousy T-Shirt”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2005년 2월 24일. 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  156. ↑ Vinocur, John (2006년 1월 3일). “For Schröder and Putin, Linkup No Coincidence”. 《New York Times》. 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  157. ↑ Parfitt, Tom (2005년 2월 27일). “Putin's Enemies Call for Investigation into Links with Stasi Agent”. 《The Daily Telegraph》 (London). 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  158. ↑ 가 나 “Report Links Putin to Dresdner”. 《The St. Petersburg Times》. 2005년 3월 1일. 2008년 6월 13일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  159. ↑ “In Russland braucht man einen langen Atem” [In Russia You Need a Lot of Patience]. 《Welt am Sonntag》 (독일어). 2007년 1월 17일. 2014년 5월 5일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2016년 4월 26일에 확인함. 
  160. ↑ 가 나 Buck, Tobias; Benoit, Bertrand (2006년 5월 8일). “EU to Probe German Gas Pipeline Guarantee”. 《Financial Times》. 2007년 8월 26일에 확인함. 
  161. ↑ Young, Marc (2005년 12월 12일). “Schröder to Build Putin's Pipeline”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2007년 8월 26일에 확인함. 
  162. ↑ “Schröder's New Job Stinks”. 《Spiegel Online》. 2005년 12월 13일. 2007년 8월 26일에 확인함. 
  163. ↑ “Gerhard Schroeder's Sellout”. 《The Washington Post》. 2005년 12월 13일. 2007년 8월 26일에 확인함. 
  164. ↑ “Nord Stream Gift Prompts Bribery Probe”. 《The Local》. 2009년 2월 19일. 2009년 4월 19일에 확인함. 
  165. ↑ Ullman, Tommie (2009년 2월 16일). “Former Political Employees Now on Other Side in the Hot 'Pipe Line Question'”. 《Stockholm News》. 2010년 11월 29일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 2009년 4월 19일에 확인함. 
  166. ↑ “Ex-PM Paavo Lipponen to Serve as Adviser to Gas Pipeline Builder”. 《Helsingin Sanomat》. 2008년 8월 15일. 2009년 4월 19일에 확인함. 
  167. ↑ Ministry of Trade and Industry of Finland (11 January 2007). “Statement on the environmental impact assessment programme of the Russia-Germany natural gas pipeline” (PDF). Nord Stream AG. 26 March 2009에 원본 문서 (PDF)에서 보존된 문서. 23 February 2008에 확인함. 
  168. ↑ “Poland has its own project of gas pipeline to deliver Russian gas to Western Europe”. 《Gazeta.kz》. 2008년 1월 30일. 2008년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  169. ↑ “Baltic, Polish Leaders Rejuvenate Amber Gas Pipeline Proposal as Alternative to Controversial Nord Stream”. Global Insight. 2008년 2월 6일. 2009년 1월 31일에 확인함. 
  170. ↑ Flak, Agnieszka (2008년 4월 14일). “Nord Stream says overland route not an option”. 《Reuters》. 2008년 5월 18일에 확인함. 
  171. ↑ “Pipelines from Russia — Dead souls”. 《The Economist》. 2008년 5월 15일. 2008년 6월 13일에 확인함. 
  172. ↑ “Underwater Investigation of Wreck on Greifswalder Bodden Enters Second Phase” (보도 자료). Nord Stream AG. 31 October 2008. 12 March 2010에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 11 January 2009에 확인함. 
  173. ↑ “Финский залив стал заливом сокровищ” [The Gulf of Finland has become a treasure bay]. 《Moskovsky Komsomolets》. 2009년 1월 26일. 2020년 12월 16일에 확인함.  | language = Russian
  174. ↑ “U.S.'s Tillerson Says Nord Stream 2 Pipeline Would Undermine Europe's Energy Security”. 《Reuters》. U.S. News & World Report. 2018년 1월 27일에 확인함. 
  175. ↑ “Germany and Russia gas links: Trump is not only one to ask questions”. 《The Guardian》. 2018년 7월 11일. 
  176. ↑ “Trump barrels into Europe's pipeline politics”. 《Politico》. 2018년 7월 11일. 
  177. ↑ 가 나 Teffer, Peter (2015년 12월 18일). “Tusk: Nord Stream II doesn't help”. 《EUobserver》. 2016년 6월 5일에 확인함. 
  178. ↑ Steinhauser, Gabriele (2015년 12월 18일). “Germany's Merkel Defends Russian Gas Pipeline Plan”. 《The Wall Street Journal》. 2016년 6월 5일에 확인함. 
  179. ↑ “Nord Stream 2: Trojan Horse or Guarantee of Security”. 《Natural Gas Europe》. 2016년 3월 23일. 2017년 4월 30일에 확인함. 
  180. ↑ Sytas, Andrius (2016년 3월 16일). “EU leaders sign letter objecting to Nord Stream-2 gas link”. 《Reuters》. 2017년 4월 30일에 확인함. 
  181. ↑ Rettman, Andrew (2016년 3월 17일). “Eastern EU leaders to warn Juncker on Nord Stream II”. 《EUobserver》. 2017년 4월 30일에 확인함. 
  182. ↑ “United States is attacking Russia's gas projects in Europe”. 《Eurasia Daily》. 2016년 7월 14일. 2017년 4월 30일에 확인함. 
  183. ↑ "Germany's Angela Merkel slams planned US sanctions on Russia". Deutsche Welle. 16 June 2017.
  184. ↑ “Trump approves sanctions on builders of Russia-to-Europe gas pipelines”. 《France 24》. Agence France-Presse. 2019년 12월 21일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  185. ↑ Hunnicutt, Timothy Gardner, Trevor (2021년 1월 26일). “White House says Biden believes Nord Stream 2 pipeline is 'bad deal' for Europe”. 《Reuters》. 2021년 2월 17일에 확인함. 
  186. ↑ “Biden admin weighs sanctions on Russian pipeline backed by Germany”. 《NBC News》. 2021년 2월 17일에 확인함. 
  187. ↑ “Press Briefing by Press Secretary Jen Psaki and Domestic Policy Advisor Susan Rice, January 26, 2021”. 《The White House》. 2021년 1월 26일. 2021년 2월 17일에 확인함. 
  188. ↑ Heller, Gernot; de Carbonnel, Alissa (2017년 6월 16일). “Germany threatens retaliation if U.S. sanctions harm its firms”. 《Reuters》. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  189. ↑ Bershidsky, Leonid (2017년 6월 16일). “GThe U.S. Sanctions Russia, Europe Says 'Ouch!'”. 《Bloomberg》. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  190. ↑ “France says U.S. sanctions on Iran, Russia look illegal”. 《Reuters》. 2017년 7월 26일. 
  191. ↑ “US bill on Russia sanctions prompts German, Austrian outcry”. 《Deutsche Welle》. 2017년 6월 15일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  192. ↑ "Germany, Austria Slam US Sanctions Against Russia". U.S. News. 15 June 2017.
  193. ↑ "Germany and Austria warn US over expanded Russia sanctions". Politico. 15 June 2017.
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  195. ↑ “Germany, EU decry US Nord Stream sanctions”. 《Deutsche Welle》. 2019년 12월 21일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  196. ↑ “Ukraine and Russia look to strike new gas deal amid US sanctions threa”. 《CNBC》. 2019년 12월 16일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  197. ↑ “Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline faces sanctions under US defense bill”. 《Deutsche Welle》. 2019년 12월 12일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  198. ↑ “Nord Stream 2: Biden waives US sanctions on Russian pipeline”. 《BBC News》. 2021년 5월 20일. 2021년 5월 19일에 확인함. 
  199. ↑ Jacobs, Jennifer; Epstein, Jennifer (2021년 5월 25일). “Biden Says He Waived Nord Stream Sanctions Because It's Finished”. 《Bloomberg》. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  200. ↑ “Putin-Biden Summit Set for June 16 in Geneva”. 《The Moscow Times》. 2021년 5월 25일. 2021년 8월 17일에 확인함. 
  201. ↑ “Nord Stream 2: Biden waives US sanctions on Russian pipeline”. BBC News. 2021년 5월 20일. 
  202. ↑ “Exclusive: Zelensky "surprised" and "disappointed" by Biden pipeline move”. 《Axios》. 6 June 202. 
  203. ↑ 가 나 Ost-Ausschuss der Deutschen Wirtschaft (2021년 5월 20일). “Klare Mehrheit für Fertigstellung von Nord Stream 2” (독일어). 2021년 6월 30일에 확인함. 
  204. ↑ Wetzel, Daniel (2021년 5월 20일). “Versöhnung mit Amerika? In Wahrheit ist die Ostsee-Pipeline umkämpfter denn je”. 《Die Welt》 (독일어). 2021년 6월 30일에 확인함. 
  205. ↑ “Nuclear Power in Germany”. 2021년 3월 30일. 2021년 6월 25일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 
  206. ↑ Appunn, Kerstine (2021년 3월 9일). “The history behind Germany's nuclear phase-out”. 《Journalism for the Energy Transition》. 2021년 6월 26일에 원본 문서에서 보존된 문서. 
  207. ↑ 가 나 Gotev, Georgi (2019년 9월 26일). “Nord Stream 2 seeks arbitration in dispute with EU Commission”. 《EURACTIV》. 2019년 12월 22일에 확인함. 
  208. ↑ Dudek, Jerzy (2017년 12월 15일). “Nord Stream 2 and the EU Regulatory Framework: challenges ahead”. Publications Office of the European Union. doi:10.2870/998504. 
  209. ↑ Yafimava, Katja (March 2019). “Gas Directive amendment: implications for Nord Stream 2” (PDF). 《Oxford Institute for Energy Studies》. 2019년 12월 18일에 확인함. 
  210. ↑ Jeutner, Valentin (2019). “Amendments, annexations, alternatives: Nord Stream 2's contemporary status under EU and international law”. 《The Journal of World Energy Law & Business》 12 (6): 502–512. doi:10.1093/jwelb/jwz031. 
  211. ↑ Rettman, Andrew (2019년 9월 27일). “Russian pipeline firm launches anti-EU dispute”. 《EUobserver》. 2019년 12월 22일에 확인함. 

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