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[[파일:Bubo bubo 1 (Martin Mecnarowski).jpg|thumb|upright|With [[pine marten]] prey in Czech Republic]]
The [[Eurasian eagle-owl]] (''Bubo bubo'') may well be the most powerful extant species of owl, able to attack and kill large prey far beyond the capacities of most other living owls. However, the species is even more marked for its ability to live on more diverse prey than possibly any other comparably sized raptorial bird, which, given its considerable size, is almost fully restricted to [[eagle]]s. This species can adapt to surprisingly small prey where it is the only kind available and to large prey where it is abundant. Eurasian eagle-owls feed most commonly on small mammals weighing {{convert|100|g|lb|abbr=on}} or more, although nearly 45% of the prey species recorded have an average adult body mass of less than {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=on}}. Usually 55-80% of the food of eagle-owls is mammalian.<ref name= HBW>Schuchmann (1999). ''Eurasian Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo)''. pp. 186 in: del Hoyo, Elliott & Sargatal, eds (1999). ''[[Handbook of the Birds of the World]]''. Vol. 5. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. {{ISBN|84-87334-25-3}}</ref><ref name= Voous>Voous, K.H. 1988. ''Owls of the Northern Hemisphere''. The MIT Press, 0262220350.</ref>
==Hunting and digestion==
Hunting mainly consist of the owl watching from a perch for prey activity and then swooping down swiftly once prey is spotted. The prey is often killed quickly by the eagle owl's powerful grip and talons though is sometimes bitten on the head to be killed as well.<ref name= Konig>{{cite book |last=König |first=Claus |title=Owls of the World |year=2008 |publisher=Christopher Helm |location=London |isbn=9781408108840 |edition=2nd |author2=Weick, Friedhelm }}</ref> Then the prey item is swallowed whole or torn into pieces with the bill. The same basic hunting and killing methods are used by all owls in the genus ''[[Horned owl|Bubo]]'', except that the [[snowy owl]]s (''Bubo scandiacus'') and [[fish owl]]s regularly watch for prey from a ground position (on a bank in the case of fish owls).<ref name= Voous/><ref>Jaksić, F. M., & Carothers, J. H. (1985). ''Ecological, morphological, and bioenergetic correlates of hunting mode in hawks and owls''. Ornis Scandinavica, 165-172.</ref> Most hunting occurs in wood-cloaked openings, often those carved out by wetlands or watersheds. While they can and do hunt within woodlands, they are not well suited to hunting in areas with dense understories, thick foliage or tree thickets, as they seem to hunt firstly by vision and only secondarily by sounds, unlike some other owls. Eurasian eagle-owls are too heavy with relatively modest wing areas to hunt extensively on the wing although this species’ relatively short, broad wings allow it low-speed maneuverability in the moments are it takes off after they spot a prey item. Because of the limits of its flying abilities, the Eurasian eagle-owl requires ample, elevated perches from which to watch for prey activity and thus in most areas it will not hunt extensively in open, treeless areas, unlike smaller owls like the [[barn owl]] (''Tyto alba''). Tree branches are often the main hunting perches used but they will also use rock formations, rubble with large rocks, hills with tall grasses or even a building, tall pole or other elevated manmade perch.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Martinez>Martínez, J. A., Serrano, D., & Zuberogoitia, I. (2003). ''Predictive models of habitat preferences for the Eurasian eagle owl Bubo bubo: a multiscale approach''. Ecography, 26(1), 21-28.</ref><ref name= Martinez2>Martinez, J. A., Martinez, J. E., Manosa, S., Zuberogoitia, I., & Calvo, J. F. (2006). ''How to manage human-induced mortality in the Eagle Owl Bubo bubo''. Bird Conservation International, 16(03), 265-278.</ref><ref name= Mikkola>''Owls of the World: A Photographic Guide'' by Mikkola, H. Firefly Books (2012), {{ISBN|9781770851368}}</ref> Occasionally, they may capture other birds on the wing, including nocturnal migrants, taking advantage of their distraction and diminished visual acuity to intercept them in mid-flight.<ref name= Martinez/> They seem to hunt mostly by opportunity, taking whatever detectable prey item that is available, preferably those that are active.<ref name= Voous/> Most prey, even up to the size of small rabbits, are swallowed whole.<ref name= Sergio>Sergio, F. (2002). ''Biases associated with diet study methods in the Eurasian Eagle-Owl''. J. Raptor Res, 36(1), 11-16.</ref> While a small rodent can easily be swallowed in an instant, if the prey item is large, the swallowing process can appear grueling and grotesque and in some cases eagle-owl nestlings have choked to death while attempting to swallow overly large prey (i.e. [[moorhen]]s).<ref name= Konig/><ref name= Sergio/> Small prey is often swallowed immediately after capture, although occasionally it is carried in the bill to the nest for the young or to a roost for quick consumption. Larger prey is normally carried in the owl's feet and is more likely than smallish prey to be brought to the nest due to its nutritional value.<ref name= Konig/> Exceptionally large prey (probably any over {{convert|3000|g|lb|abbr=on}}) is consumed on the ground where it is killed, possibly being torn apart into manageable pieces. This leaves the owl vulnerable to loss of their prey to scavengers or to confrontations with heavier predators.<ref name= Konig/> The undigestable portions of prey are regurgitated in the form of pellets as in all owls. Pellets of the Eurasian eagle-owl average around {{convert|75|x|32|mm|in|abbr=on}}, thus they are around the same size as those of most other large ''Bubo'' owls, even the notably smaller [[great horned owl]] (''B. virginianus''). In some cases, pellets of ''Bubo'' owls can range up to {{convert|150|mm|in|abbr=on}} in length.<ref name= Konig/><ref name="owlpages.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.owlpages.com/owls.php?genus=Bubo&species=bubo |title=Eurasian Eagle Owl - Bubo bubo - Information, Pictures, Sounds |publisher=Owlpages.com |date=2005-04-21 |accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref> Eagle-owl pellets average slightly larger (about 10%) than those of [[great grey owl]]s (''Strix nebulosa'').<ref>Cramp, S. 1985. Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa. Vol. 4. Oxford Univ. Press. Oxford.</ref> As is the case with all owls, pellets are indisputably the best method to examine the main diversity of prey consumed by an owl. However, it is also important to examine the prey remains left around a roost or nest when available. Larger prey, which may be torn apart before the eating of portions or fleshy parts of the prey item, is frequently determined solely by remains rather pellets as are birds, in which the wings, feet and some feathers may be removed before consumption.<ref name="Sergio"/><ref>Laroulandie, V. (2002). ''Damage to pigeon long bones in pellets of the eagle owl Bubo bubo and food remains of peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus: zooarchaeological implications''. In ZM Bochenski, Z. Bochenski, JR Stewart (Eds.), Proceedings of the 4th Meeting of the ICAZ Bird Working Group, Kraków, Poland, 11–15 September 2001. Acta Zoologica cracoviensia (Vol. 45, pp. 331-339).</ref> As in the great horned owl, after capturing larger prey, the Eurasian eagle-owl often beheads it. In part, this may be due to making prey easier to carry off and, in both large owl species, it is considered a signature indicator for predator identification.<ref name= DeCupere>De Cupere, B., Thys, S., Van Neer, W., Ervynck, A., Corremans, M., & Waelkens, M. (2009). ''Eagle owl (Bubo bubo) pellets from Roman Sagalassos (SW Turkey): distinguishing the prey remains from nest and roost sites''. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 19(1), 1-22.</ref><ref name="Lloveras, L. 2009">Lloveras, L., Moreno‐García, M., & Nadal, J. (2009). ''The eagle owl (Bubo bubo) as a leporid remains accumulator: taphonomic analysis of modern rabbit remains recovered from nests of this predator''. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 19(5), 573-592.</ref><ref name= Willgohs>Willgohs, J. F. (1974). ''The eagle owl Bubo bubo (L.) in Norway; Part I- Food Ecology''. Sterna, 13, 129-177.</ref>
[[File:Owl catching in flight.jpg|thumb|right|A captive Eurasian eagle-owl catches its food in mid-air.]]
==Summary of general diet==
The diet is generally more diverse than any other co-existing owl but often focuses predominantly on a particular range of prey species, with two to four species often making up the majority of the diet.<ref name= Hume>Hume, R. (1991). ''Owls of the world''. Running Press, Philadelphia, PA. 1991.</ref> Studies conducted over the course of years has shown that the regional diet often changes dramatically from year to year. This is partially driven by the cyclical population trends of much of their prey as well as by habitat changes, which are often due to human activities.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Hume/> The primary prey species varies by region but is comprised mainly by small [[mammal]]s such as [[vole]]s, [[rat]]s, [[mice]], [[rabbit]]s and [[hares]].<ref name= Konig/> In [[Europe]], the five main prey species are, in order of extent of reporting and numeric abundance in dietary studies: the [[brown rat]] (''Rattus norvegius''), which has now occupied edge habitats (although generally associated with man) in almost every part of Europe excluding the colder north; the [[common vole]] (''Microtus arvalis''), often the most abundant native, small mammal in wild portions of Europe;<ref>Delattre, P., Giraudoux, P., Baudry, J., Quéré, J. P., & Fichet, E. (1996). ''Effect of landscape structure on Common Vole (Microtus arvalis) distribution and abundance at several space scales''. Landscape Ecology, 11(5), 279-288.</ref> the [[European hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus concolor''), which occupies wooded edges across western Europe alongside the eagle-owls; the [[European water vole]] (''Arvicola amphibius''), a unique, large vole occupying the wetland edges often hunted by eagle-owls; and the [[European rabbit]] (''Oryctolagus cuniculus''), which has a very close relationship with the eagle-owls found throughout the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the [[massif]]s of [[France]].<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Donazar>Donázar, J. A., Hiraldo, F., Delibes, M., & Estrella, R. R. (1989). ''Comparative food habits of the Eagle Owl Bubo bubo and the Great Horned Owl Bubo virginianus in six Palearctic and Nearctic biomes''. Ornis Scandinavica, 298-306.</ref><ref name= Janossy>Jánossy, D., & Schmidt, E. (1970). ''Die Nahrung des Uhus (Bubo bubo). Regionale und erdzeitliche Änderungen''. Bonner zool. Beitr, 21, 25-31.</ref> As the distribution of the Eurasian eagle-owls moves west (and south), the primarily prey species gradually change but often continues to be dominated in number by small rodents and in biomass by slightly larger mammals such as [[hedgehog]]s and [[Leporidae|hares and rabbit]]s.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Janossy/>
A very large balance of the prey range can also be comprised by birds and other prey including [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s, fish, insects and other [[invertebrate]]s are seemingly taken whenever they are available. All told, well more than 600 different species have been identified as prey of Eurasian eagle-owls.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Donazar/><ref name= Janossy/> Their diet includes basically all the same prey as all sympatric diurnal raptors in the genera ''[[Buteo]]'', ''[[Aquila (genus)|Aquila]]'' and ''[[Haliaeetus]]''. The total number of prey species may even surpass that of the great horned owl and may well be the greatest of any raptorial bird on the Eurasian continent.<ref name= Voous/> Among five segments of [[Europe]] the average prey diversity per region was 63 species, a higher number than any of the other 40 raptorial bird species studied there.<ref name= Marti>Marti, C. D., Korpimäki, E., & Jaksić, F. M. (1993). ''Trophic structure of raptor communities: a three-continent comparison and synthesis''. In Current ornithology (pp. 47-137). Springer US.</ref> The mean mass of prey per study has varied from as little as {{convert|84.2|g|oz|abbr=on}}, near the now former [[Aral Sea]] in [[Turkmenistan]] with the [[Turkmen jerboa]] (''Jaculus turkmenicus'') being the primary prey species, to {{convert|1037.9|g|lb|abbr=on}}, in [[Spain]] with the [[European rabbit]] being the primary prey species.<ref name= Donazar/><ref name= Jaksic>Jaksić, F. M., & Marti, C. D. (1984). ''Comparative food habits of Bubo owls in Mediterranean-type ecosystems''. Condor, 288-296.</ref> Remarkably, in northern [[Spain]], where the rabbit is now [[Local extinction|extirpated]] (as was the eagle-owl for a time in the 20th century), the average weight of prey can dip as low as {{convert|87|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref>Serrano, D. ''Interhabitat differences in the diet of the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) in the mid Ebro river valley (NE Spain): effect of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) availability''. Ardeola. Volume 45(1), 1998. Pages 35-46.</ref> In comparison, the lightest mean prey mass in dietary studies of the great horned owl was {{convert|22.5|g|oz|abbr=on}} while the highest was {{convert|610.4|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Donazar/><ref>Donázar, J. A., Travaini, A., Ceballos, O., Delibes, M., & Hiraldo, F. (1997). ''Food habits of the great horned owl in northwestern Argentine Patagonia: the role of introduced lagomorphs''. Journal of Raptor Research, 31(4), 364-369.</ref>
Most dietary studies place the average weight of Eurasian eagle-owl prey in the zone of {{convert|100|to|500|g|lb|abbr=on}}, thus the species fits well within the rule of thumb that most prey weigh no more than 20% of the raptorial bird's own weight.<ref name= Donazar/><ref name= Simeonov>Simeonov, S., Milchev, B., & Boev, Z. (1998). ''Study of the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo (L.))(Aves: Strigiformes) in the Strandzha mountain (Southeast Bulgaria). II. Food spectrum and trophic specialization''. Acta zool. bulg, 50(2/3), 87-100.</ref><ref>Olsen, Jerry. ''Australian high country owls''. CSIRO PUBLISHING, 2011.</ref> The average prey weight in comparison to the eagle-owl's body mass is reportedly average and unremarkable for both owls and raptors in general, the average prey per one study was 7.2% of the eagle-owls’ body mass.<ref name= Marti/> The European raptorial birds most likely to attack prey of a relatively large size compared to themselves were the [[black kite]] (''Milvus migrans''), whose average prey was 35.7% of its own weight, and the [[Eurasian pygmy owl]] (''Glaucidium passerinum''), whose average prey was 31.7% of its own weight.<ref name= Marti/> On the other hand, when rabbit numbers were at their peak, the average prey mass in Spain may range up to at least 55% of the eagle-owls’ own body mass in that population.<ref name= Jaksic/><ref name= Penteriani>Penteriani, V., Delgado, M. M. (2010) ''Búho real – Bubo bubo. En: Enciclopedia Virtual de los Vertebrados Españoles''. Salvador, A., Bautista, L. M. (Eds.). Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid.</ref> A raptorial prey comparison estimated that the mean prey weight for eagle-owls in [[Europe]] was {{convert|294.7|g|oz|abbr=on}} as a mean among 5 main regions, the highest of any owl but similar or slightly lighter than the European average for [[northern goshawk]]s (''Accipiter gentilis'') and considerably lower only than two widespread European eagles. Per that study the average prey weight of the great horned owl in 4 [[North America]]n regions was much lower (averaging only {{convert|64|g|oz|abbr=on}}).<ref name= Marti/> In [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub|Mediterranean scrub]], the average mammalian prey of the Eurasian eagle-owl was nearly five times heavier than those of great horned owls from similar habitats in [[Chile]], [[California]] and [[Colorado]], where in combination the horned owl's mammalian food averaged {{convert|230|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Jaksic/> However, a comparison between eagle- and horned owls based upon six comparable [[biome]]s in the Americas and Eurasia found the great horned owl's prey averaged {{convert|372|g|oz|abbr=on}}, improbably slightly higher than the eagle-owl at {{convert|327|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Donazar/> If known [[Asia]]n studies are mixed with European ones, the average prey weight for the Eurasian eagle-owl overall may also roughly be {{convert|372|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Donazar/> Among [[Sympatry|sympatric]] owls in Europe, the mean prey weight of [[long-eared owl]]s (''Asio otus'') was found to be {{convert|32|g|oz|abbr=on}}, the [[tawny owl]] (''Strix aluco'') took prey weighing a mean of {{convert|34.5|g|oz|abbr=on}} (though locally can be as high as {{convert|130|g|oz|abbr=on}}) and [[short-eared owl]]s (''Asio flammeus'') mean prey weigh was {{convert|35|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Voous/> A study in [[Finland]] seeking to distinguish the differences in prey taken by females and smaller male eagle-owls found that the two sexes prey averaged {{convert|828|g|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|575|g|lb|abbr=on}}, respectively. The species taken as food by the two sexes there were largely the same but the female simply often caught the larger prey individuals.<ref name= Mikkola2>Mikkola, H., & Tornberg, R. (2014). ''Sex-specific diet analysis of the Eurasian Eagle Owl in Finland''. Ornis Fennica, 91, 195-200.</ref>
==Prey types==
===
[[File:Co-swand-09-12.jpg|thumb|right|The brown rat is now arguably the most significant prey species for eagle-owls in Europe.]]
In terms of sheer quantitative abundance, rodents are by far the most dominant prey group in the diet of the Eurasian eagle-owl. Roughly 130 species of rodent are known to have been taken by these owls.<ref name= Voous/> Due to their small sizes, however, rodent prey often comprise a relatively small portion of the prey biomass, excepting relatively large rodents such as [[rat]]s and [[hamster]]s, some of which weigh at least {{convert|300|g|oz|abbr=on}}. In many parts of [[Europe]], the most numerous prey in dietary studies are the {{convert|360|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[brown rat]] and the {{convert|28.5|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[common vole]], followed by the nearly as widespread {{convert|40|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[field vole]] (''Microtus agrestis''). Among the areas where the common vole was the leading prey species included southern [[Sweden]], [[Germany]], [[Poland]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Slovakia]].<ref name= Janossy/><ref name= Geidel>Geidel, C. (2012). ''Entwicklung neuartiger Schutzkonzepte für den Uhu (Bubo bubo) ''-Abschlussbericht 2012. Gutachten (DBU-Projekt).</ref><ref name= Schaefer>Schaefer, H. (1971). ''Beutetiere des uhus Bubo bubo aus Karpaten und Lappland''. Bonner Zoologische Beiträge, 22, 153-160.</ref><ref name= Vondracek>Vondracek, J. (1983). ''Beitrag zur Nahrungsökologie und Nahrungszusammensetzung beim Uhu /Bubo bubo/ in den nordböhmischen Lokalitäten''. Sylvia, 32: 39-54.</ref> In areas that have undergone more heavy development, the brown rat predominates, being the leading prey item in several parts of [[France]] including [[Côte-d'Or]], [[Lozère]] and even the remote [[French Pyrenees|Pyrenees]], [[Belgium]], the [[Alps|Italian Alps]], and [[Brașov County|Brașov]], [[Romania]].<ref name= Marchesi>Marchesi, L., Sergio, F., & Pedrini, P. (2002). ''Costs and benefits of breeding in human‐altered landscapes for the Eagle Owl Bubo bubo''. Ibis, 144(4), E164-E177.</ref><ref name= Sandor>Sandor, A. D., & Ionescu, D. T. (2009). ''Diet of the eagle owl (Bubo bubo) in Braşov, Romania''. North-Western Journal of Zoology, 5(1), 170-178.</ref><ref>Abel, J. ''LE GRAND-DUC D'EUROPE EN CÔTE-D'OR''. CEOB- L’Aile Brisee/Tierecelet Infos: 54-62.</ref><ref name="Malafosse, J. 1985">Malafosse, J. (1985). ''Quelques données sur le Hibou grand-duc (Bubo bubo) dans le département de la Lozère de 1978 à 1984''. Le Grand-Duc, 26, 26-32.</ref><ref name= Tavernier>{{cite web |url= http://www.hibou-grand-duc.fr/regime-alimentaire/regime-alimentaire-dans-le-tarn-et-l%E2%80%99ariege-2014/1777 |title= REGIME ALIMENTAIRE DANS LE TARN ET L’ARIEGE 2014 |publisher= Hibou Grand-Duc en Midi-Pyrénées |author= Tavernier, G. |accessdate= 6 March 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115307/http://www.hibou-grand-duc.fr/regime-alimentaire/regime-alimentaire-dans-le-tarn-et-l%E2%80%99ariege-2014/1777 |archive-date= 2 April 2015 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>Balluet, P. (2011). ''Pathologie des proies du grand-duc''. Le Grand-duc n°9/10 - LPO 2 Mission Rapaces.</ref> The [[brown rat]] is even the primary prey in [[Lebanon]] despite it being tied solely to human habitations as the environment is often too arid to allow it to survive further afield.<ref>Bayle, P., & Prior, R. (2006). ''Prey species of Eagle Owl Bubo bubo in Lebanon''. SANDGROUSE, 28(2), 167.</ref> [[Black rat]]s (''Rattus rattus''), at {{convert|200|g|oz|abbr=on}}, are also hunted but rarely in equal number to the generally more successful brown rats.<ref name= Marchesi/> In [[Norway]] and [[Finland]], field voles were the most numerous prey species, per one study in the latter country it made up 30.1% of the food but only provided 3.3% of the prey biomass.<ref name= Willgohs/><ref name= Mikkola2/> The European water vole, averaging at {{convert|75|to|140|g|oz|abbr=on}}, was the main prey species in [[Styria]], [[Austria]], although considerably secondary in biomass to hedgehogs, as well as in central [[Sweden]]. The water vole often the second or third most regularly found prey species in several other European studies.<ref name= Janossy/><ref name= Sackl>Sackl, P., & Döltlmayer, G. (1996). ''Zur Siedlungsbiologie und Ökologie des Uhus Bubo bubo im oberen Murtal (Steiermark, Österreich) ''. Greife und Eulen Abh. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Österreich 129 (1996): 33-45.</ref><ref>Emmett, R. E., Mikkola, H., Mummery, L., & Westerhoff, G. (1972). ''Prey found in eagle owls' nest in central Sweden''. British Birds, 65(11), 482-483.</ref> In [[Samara, Russia]], the diet is dominated by the European water vole, although other species such as [[European hamster]]s (''Cricetus cricetus'') and [[European hare]]s (''Lepus europaeus'') (both also significant prey there) probably outweigh them in biomass contribution.<ref name= Janossy/> The common vole and European water vole together made up roughly 80% of the prey by number in the [[High Tatras]] of [[Slovakia]] and more than 60% of the diet in bordering [[Poland]].<ref name= Janossy/>
[[File:Feldmaus Microtus arvalis.jpg|thumb|left|The common vole is one of the most important foods for Eurasian eagle-owls.]]
In the northern extremes of their range, Eurasian eagle-owls tend to have a less varied diet than those to the south and the need to catch significant numbers of rodents rises as they are often the only regularly accessible prey in sparse sub-Arctic environments. In northern [[Sweden]], more than 60% of the food was made up of microtine rodents, i.e. the {{convert|70|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Norway lemming]] (''Lemmus lemmus''), the field vole, the European water vole and the {{convert|36|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[grey red-backed vole]] (''Myodes rufocanus'').<ref name= Schaefer2>Schaefer, J.H. (1970). ''Womit ernährt der uhu (Bubo bubo) in Lappland seine Jungen''. Bonner zoologische Beiträge, 21, 52-62.</ref> In one study from western [[Russia]], rodents comprised more than 90% of the diet of the eagle-owls, led by the {{convert|25|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[steppe lemming]] (''Lagurus lagurus'') at 24% by number, the {{convert|27|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[narrow-headed vole]] (''Microtus gregalis'') at 21% and the European water vole at 17.9%.<ref>Emikov, E.V. ''Trophic remains from the Eagle-Owl (BUBO BUBO L) in forest-steppe landscapes of Middle Siberia''.</ref> Similarly in high altitude tundra of the [[Eastern Alps|East Austrian Alps]], nearly 90% of the food was found to be comprised by microtine rodents, the {{convert|54|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[European snow vole]] (''Chionomys nivalis'') being the most frequently identified species in the diet.<ref name= Janossy/> In [[Spain]], the {{convert|19|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Algerian mouse]] (''Mus spretus''), at up to 41.8% of the prey by number, and {{convert|24|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[wood mouse]] (''Apodemus sylvaticus''), at up to 10.5% by number, are often regularly taken, especially in regions where rabbit numbers have declined.<ref name= Donazar2>Donázar, J. A. (1989). ''Variaciones geograficas y estacionales en la alimentacion del Buho real''. Ardeola, 36, 25-39.</ref><ref name= Donazar3>Donazar, D. 1998. ''Interhabitat differences in the diet of the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) in the mid Ebro river valley (NE Spain): effect of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) availability''. 45 (1): 35-46.</ref> In [[Romania]], the {{convert|98|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Romanian hamster]] (''Mesocricetus newtoni'') and {{convert|365|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[European hamster]] are the most prominent species found in the eagle-owl's diet, alongside the brown rat.<ref name= Sandor/><ref name= Sandor2>Sandor, A. D. & Bugariu, S. (2008). ''Food habits of the Eurasian Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) in Cheile Dobrogei Gorge''. Sc. Annals of DDI, 16: 69-74.</ref> The Romanian hamster is also dominated the prey list per a study in [[Bulgaria]], only the [[European water vole]] follows distantly in number.<ref name= Simeonov2>Simeonov, S., & Boev, Z. (1988). ''A study of the nutritive spectrum of the eagle owl (Bubo bubo L.) in Bulgaria''. Ecology, 21, 47-56.</ref> [[Dormouse|Dormice]] are readily taken when available in Europe, especially the {{convert|127|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[edible dormouse]] from central [[Europe]] to the eastern countries.<ref>Lebl, K., Bieber, C., Adamík, P., Fietz, J., Morris, P., Pilastro, A., & Ruf, T. (2011). ''Survival rates in a small hibernator, the edible dormouse: a comparison across Europe''. Ecography, 34(4), 683-692.</ref> In [[Slovenia]], the edible dormouse was the most regularly-recorded prey species, making up 20.2% of the food but it comprised 9.4% of the biomass.<ref name= Milehic>Milehic, T. (2002). ''Diet of the Eagle Owl Bubo bubo in southwestern Slovenia''. Acrocephalus 23 (112): 81-86.</ref> The edible dormouse was also the most regular prey species in [[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]], [[Italy]], making up 22.5% of the diet.<ref>Toffoli, R., Beraudo, P., Caula, B., & Pavia, M. (1999). ''L'alimentazione di una coppia di Gufo reale Bubo bubo sulle Alpi Marittime''. AVOCETTA-PARMA-, 23, 102-102.</ref> The smaller {{convert|82.5|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[garden dormouse]] (''Eliomys quercinus'') and considerably smaller {{convert|27.3|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[hazel dormouse]] (''Muscardinus avellanarius'') are also occasionally predated in Europe, plus at least a half dozen other dormouse species in [[eastern Europe]], [[Asia Minor]] and several points to the east.<ref name= Janossy/>
[[Jird]]s, [[jerboa]]s, [[gerbil]]s and [[hamster]]s, particular the genera ''[[Allactaga]]'', ''[[Ellobius]]'', ''[[Gerbillus]]'', ''[[Meriones (genus)|Meriones]]'', and ''[[Pygeretmus]]'', start to become noticeable in the diet in the more arid portions of this species’ range, i.e. from [[Asia Minor]] to the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Janossy/> Relatively large species such as {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Tristram's jird]] (''Meriones tristrami'') and the {{convert|162|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Euphrates jerboa]] (''Allactaga euphratica'') are often amongst the more prominent species to be hunted.<ref name="Shehab"/><ref>Obuch, J. (1994). ''On the food of eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) and tawny owl (Strix aluco) in the eastern part of Turkey''. Tichodroma, 7, 7-16.</ref> In western [[Kazakhstan]], the primary foods are the {{convert|350|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[great jerboa]] (''Allactaga major'') and {{convert|55|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[northern mole vole]] (''Ellobius talpinus'') while on the [[Buzachi Peninsula|Buzachi]] and [[Mangyshlak Peninsula]]s of the Kazakh [[Caspian Sea]], the primary foods were the {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Libyan jird]] (''Meriones libycus''), {{convert|285|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[great gerbil]] (''Rhombomys opimus'') and {{convert|58.7|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[small five-toed jerboa]] (''Allactaga elater'').<ref name= Janossy/> All told, in the peninsular Kazakh regions of the Caspian Sea, jirds, jerboas and gerbils made up about 92% of the food.<ref name= Janossy/> In the [[Tibetan Plateau]] of [[China]], the {{convert|54|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[tundra vole]] (''Microtus oeconomus'') is the leading prey species, making up 53.1% of the prey.<ref name= Qinghu/> In [[Mongolia]], two rather small rodents, the {{convert|24|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Mongolian five-toed jerboa]] (''Allactaga sibirica''), at 23.6% of the prey, and the {{convert|17|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Campbell's dwarf hamster]] (''Phodopus campbelli''), at 14.5% of the prey, make up a majority of the prey by number.<ref name= Tumurbat>Tumurbat, J., Sundev, G., & Yosef, R. (2009). ''Nest site and food composition of the Eagle Owl Bubo bubo in Mongolia''. Ardea, 97(4), 519-523.</ref> In the [[Transbaikal]], the {{convert|24|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Chinese striped hamster]] (''Cricetulus barabensis'') was the main prey species, making up 43.8% of the diet.<ref name= Janossy/>
[[File:Marmota marmota IMG 8980.jpg|thumb|right|The alpine marmot is a seldom-caught but sizeable and nutritious prey item for an eagle-owl.]]
What all primary rodent prey species share is that they are either nocturnal or crepuscular and are often common to abundant in openings of woods and rocky environments. The reason Eurasian eagle-owls take rats, which associate rather closely with humans, much more regularly than they take [[House mouse|house mice]] (''Mus musculus'') is not their larger size (many other rodents regularly taken by eagle-owls are as small or smaller than a house mouse) but the rat's ability to flourish along the edges of crop fields, refuse dumps, roadsides and abandoned buildings and fields, whereas the mice are more closely tied to active human habitations. A single refuse dump can host several thousand rats and eagle-owl territories that include dumps can locally expect higher productivity due to the abundance of this food source.<ref name= Marchesi/><ref name= Penteriani2>Penteriani, V., Gallardo, M., & Roche, P. (2002). ''Landscape structure and food supply affect eagle owl (Bubo bubo) density and breeding performance: a case of intra-population heterogeneity''. Journal of Zoology, 257(03), 365-372.</ref><ref>Mikkonen, T., Valkama, J., Wihlman, H. & Sukura, A. (2005): ''Spatial Variation of Trichinella prevalence in rats in Finnish waste disposal sites''. Journal of Parasitology 91: 210-213.</ref> [[Squirrel]]s are readily predated but, being diurnal, are largely unavailable to this and other owls. When they are captured, it is presumably around dawn or dusk from their tree hole, in species such as the widespread {{convert|315|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[red squirrel]] (''Sciurus vulgaris''), or burrow entrance, in the case of [[ground squirrel]]s, most regularly recorded as prey in [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Central Asia]]. A few specimens of the {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[woolly flying squirrel]]s (''Eupetaurus cinereus''), the largest of the world's flying squirrels and one of the rarest, were the only identified foods for Eurasian eagle-owls in northern [[Pakistan]] alongside some European hares.<ref>Zahler, P., & Dietemann, C. (1999). ''A note on the food habits of Eurasian Eagle Owl Bubo bubo in northern Pakistan''. Forktail, 98-99.</ref> Although not common in the diet, a few species of [[marmot]] have been taken and may be an important aspect of the prey biomass. In [[Europe]], adult-sized [[alpine marmot]]s, (''Marmota marmota'') have been killed.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dietmar-nill.de/Startseite |title=Dietmar Nill Photographer |accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref> However, the average weight of [[Tarbagan marmot]]s (''Marmota sibirica'') taken in [[Mongolia]] was only {{convert|1500|g|lb|abbr=on}} and that of alpine marmots in [[Engadin]], [[Switzerland]] was only {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}}. These obviously comprising young marmots as adults have average weights from {{convert|3500|to|7000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, from spring low weights to pre-hibernation weights during [[Polyphagia|autumn hypophagia]].<ref name= Tumurbat/><ref name="Wagner, G. 1970">Wagner, G., & Springer, M. (1970). ''Zur Ernährung des uhus Bubo bubo im Oberengadin''. Orn. Beob, 67, 77-94.</ref> Other than marmots, the largest rodent known to be hunted by Eurasian eagle-owls is the introduced aquatic rodents, the [[muskrat]] (''Ondatra zibethica''), which in one study estimated to average {{convert|1300|g|lb|abbr=on}} when taken, and the [[Coypu|nutria]] (''Myocastor coypus''), equal in size to the large marmots.<ref name= Leditznig>Leditznig, C., Leditznig, W., & Gossow, H. (2001). ''15 Jahre Untersuchungen am Uhu (Bubo bubo) im Mostviertel Niederösterreichs-Stand und Entwicklungstendenzen''. Egretta, 44: 45-73.</ref><ref name= Wassink>Wassink, G. (2010). ''Het dieet van de Oehoe in Nederland en enkele aangrenzende gebieden in Duitsland''. Limosa. 83: 97-108.</ref><ref>Wilson, E. J., Newson, R. M., & Aliev, F. F. (1966). ''Enemies and Competitors of the Nutria in USSR''. Journal of Mammalogy, 353-355.</ref>
===
[[File:Oryctolagus cuniculus Tasmania 2.jpg|thumb|right|A young European rabbit, the primary food for western European eagle-owls.]]
Throughout the western [[Mediterranean]] region, the Eurasian Eagle-Owl is something of a specialist on a single prey species: the [[European rabbit]]. The rabbit historically reached extremely high densities in Iberian scrub, i.e. more than 40 per every 1 square hectare (2471 square acres). In central Spain, up to 73.1% of the recorded prey for Eurasian eagle-owls, by number, are be rabbits.<ref name= Jaksic/><ref name= Serrano>Serrano, D. (2000). ''Relationship between raptors and rabbits in the diet of eagle owls in southwestern Europe: competition removal or food stress? '' Journal of Raptor Research, 34(4), 305-310.</ref> Where still available, they are also the main prey in [[Portugal]] and central [[France]].<ref>Lourenco, R. (2006). ''The food habits of Eurasian eagle-owls in Southern Portugal''. Journal of Raptor Research, 40(4), 297-300.</ref><ref>Orsini, P. (1985). ''The diet of the eagle owl Bubo bubo in Provence, southern France''. Alauda, 53(1), 11-28.</ref> However, following the devastation of the wild rabbit due to [[rabbit haemorrhagic disease]], the local eagle-owls have frequently had to adapt to other, often smaller, prey. On the other hand, given the now much reduced numbers of rabbits, the eagle-owls still regularly select rabbits, seemingly out of proportion to their commonality.<ref>Antonio Martínez, J., & Zuberogoitia, I. (2001). ''The response of the Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) to an outbreak of the rabbit haemorrhagic disease''. Journal für Ornithologie, 142(2), 204-211.</ref> Although large mature wild rabbits commonly weigh {{convert|1700|to|2400|g|lb|abbr=on}}, the eagle-owls usually hunt smaller specimens, often with an average weight around {{convert|1000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, with young rabbits usually selected in spring and summer and subadults selected in the autumn and winter.<ref name="Donázar, J. 1989">Donázar, J., & Ceballos, O. (1989). ''Selective predation by eagle owls Bubo bubo on rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus: age and sex preferences''. Ornis Scandinavica, 117-122.</ref> This is largely due to the behaviour of rabbits, with younger rabbits being forced to distribute following weaning, being less cautious in behaviour and occupying less primary habitat, thus being forced out of the confines of their burrows more regularly than mature adults.<ref name="Donázar, J. 1989"/><ref>Penteriani, V., Del Mar Delgado, M., Bartolommei, P., Maggio, C., Alonso‐Alvarez, C., & J Holloway, G. (2008). ''Owls and rabbits: predation against substandard individuals of an easy prey''. Journal of Avian Biology, 39(2), 215-221.</ref> However, the estimated average weight of rabbits taken can be variable, reported from as little as {{convert|800|g|lb|abbr=on}} in a study from Spain to as much as {{convert|1900|g|lb|abbr=on}} in the [[Netherlands]].<ref name= Jaksic/><ref name= Wassink/>
Three other lagomorphs extensively overlap in range with Eurasian eagle-owls in Europe, the [[mountain hare]] (''Lepus timidus'') in the [[Northern Europe|northern]] portions, the [[European hare]] (''Lepus europaeus'') in the [[Central Europe|central]] and [[Eastern Europe|eastern]] portions and the [[Granada hare]] (''Lepus granatensis'') in the western [[Mediterranean]] portions. These species are all larger on average than a rabbit, averaging {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}} in the Granada hare, roughly twice that in the European hare and the mountain hare being intermediate between the two. Hares are often considerably secondary in prey remains in most European biomes by number but often are a significant contributor of prey biomass for eagle-owls. For example, in [[Finland]], the mountain hare made up only 5.3% of prey by number but made up 56.2% of the prey biomass as the hare specimens were all large, with an estimated mean mass of {{convert|3900|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Mikkola2/> On the contrary, the mountain hare was the numerous prey species in one study from the [[Swiss Alps]], making up 28.3% of the prey by number.<ref name= Janossy/> Another area near Europe where hares were numerically important was in southwestern [[Turkey]], with the European hare being the second most common prey species by number. There it consisted of 18.1% of the quantity and presumably a huge portion of the biomass.<ref name= DeCupere/> In lower [[Austria]], the European hare was also the second most abundant species in the diet but the estimated average weight of hares taken was rather low, at {{convert|850|g|lb|abbr=on}}, indicating young hares of probably less than a month old are most often taken there.<ref name= Leditznig/> On the other hand, in [[Slovenia]], [[Netherlands]] and [[Bavaria]], the European hares taken were estimated to average {{convert|2500|g|lb|abbr=on}}, {{convert|4500|g|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|4750|g|lb|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref name= Milehic/><ref name= Wassink/><ref name= Schweiger>Schweiger, A., & Lipp, L. (2011). ''Wühlmäuse (Arvicolinae) als bevorzugte Beute des Uhus Bubo bubo während der Jungenaufzucht in Bayern''. Zeitschrift bayerischer und baden-württembergischer Ornithologen, 50(1): 1-25.</ref> The European hare was also the second most common prey species in a study from the [[Czech Republic]].<ref name= Vondracek/>
Outside of southwestern Europe, the next closest association between lagomorphs and this species is in the arid [[steppe]] of southern [[Russia]], hares are apparently the primary prey of the local eagle-owls. Little has been published in recent ornithological review, but old studies have indicated that the eagle-owls in this region are so dependent on hares, primarily again the mountain hare species, that cyclical reductions in numbers of the hares are followed immediately by a reduction of the local eagle-owls.<ref name= Voous/><ref>Dementiev, G. P., Gladkov, N. A., Ptushenko, E. S., Spangenberg, E. P., & Sudilovskaya, A. M. (1951). ''Birds of the Soviet Union, vol. 1''. Jerusalem: Israel Program for Scientific Translation.</ref> A similar phenomenon has been noted in the [[great horned owl]] in its association with the [[snowshoe hare]] in the American [[Taiga|boreal forest]].<ref>Adamcik, R. S., Todd, A. W., & Keith, L. B. (1978). ''Demographic and dietary responses of great horned owls during a snowshoe hare cycle''. Canadian Field-Naturalist, 92(2), 156-166.</ref> The same prey, the mountain hare, was the most important along the [[Pechora River]] in [[Russia]], making up 34.1% of prey numbers, although the general habitat is distinctly different from the steppe, as it consists of mountainous sub-taiga dense forests. Together with sizeable numbers of [[Eurasian red squirrel]]s and large forest grouse which are the next most significant prey types by number, the mean prey size along the Pechora is presumably extremely large.<ref name= Janossy/> Although in surrounding arid lowlands the food is almost totally dominated by [[gerbil]]s, [[Meriones (genus)|jirds]] and their kin, in the [[Pamir Mountains]] of [[Tajikistan]] and [[Afghanistan]], the [[cape hare]] (''Lepus capensis'') was the leading prey species, making up 44% of the prey numbers.<ref name= Janossy/> In [[Mongolia]], [[tolai hare]] (''Lepus tolai''), of similar size to the cape and Granada hare, were the most significant contributor of prey biomass, making up 30.6% of biomass but only contributed 4% of the prey by number<ref name= Tumurbat/> Other than the prior mentioned species, at least five other species of [[hare]] have been found as occasional contributors to the eagle-owl's diet.<ref name= Qinghu>Qinghu, C., Jianping, S. & Zhigang, J. (2008). ''Summer diet of two sympatric species of raptors upland buzzard (Buteo hemilasius) and Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) in Alpine meadow: Problem of coexistence''. Pol. J. Ecol, 56(1), 173-179.</ref><ref name= Shin>Shin, D. M., Yoo, J. C., & Jeong, D. M. (2013). ''Spatial Variation of Eurasian Eagle-Owl Diets in Wetland and Non-Wetland Habitats in West-Central Korea''. Journal of Raptor Research, 47(4), 400-409.</ref><ref>Dresser, H. E. (1881). ''A History of the Birds of Europe''. Henry E. Dresser.</ref> The only other family in the lagomorph order, the [[pika]]s, have been found to factor regularly into the diet of Eurasian eagle-owls as well, mainly in the mountainous regions of Asia. Pikas are much smaller than rabbits and hares, averaging {{convert|70|to|185|g|oz|abbr=on}} amongst the know prey species. One study in [[Mongolia]] found that [[Daurian pika]]s (''Ochotona dauurica'') made up 73% by number of the remains.<ref>Smith, A. T., Formozov, N. A., Hoffmann, R. S., Chapman, J. A., & Flux, J. E. (Eds.). (1990). ''Rabbits, hares and pikas: status survey and conservation action plan''. IUCN.</ref> In the [[Tibetan Plateau]], the [[plateau pika]] (''Ochotona curzoniae'') and [[gansu pika]] (''Ochotona cansus'') were the second and third most numerous prey species.<ref name= Qinghu/> The more sizeable [[large-eared pika]] (''Ochotona macrotis'') was the second most regular prey species in the [[Pamir Mountains]], comprising 10.8% of the remains.<ref name= Janossy/>
=== Other mammals ===
[[File:Erinaceus europaeus LC0119.jpg|thumb|right|The Eurasian eagle-owl is perhaps the only predator to prefer European hedgehogs as food, as one of the few predators not foiled by its prickly defenses.]]
[[Hedgehog]]s often comprise a fairly significant portion of the prey taken by Eurasian eagle-owls, both in numbers and biomass. At least eight species of hedgehog have been predated. The [[European hedgehog]] is often one of the most prominent prey species in eagle-owl diet studies from Europe, and was recorded as the most numerous prey species per researchers in parts of [[Denmark]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]] and south [[Germany]]. With an average weight of {{convert|500|to|1000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, the European hedgehog can comprise a very large portion of the biomass.<ref name= Janossy/><ref name= Geidel/><ref name="Leditznig"/><ref name= Laursen>Laursen, J. T. (1999). ''Fødevalg hos Stor Hornugle Bubo bubo i Danmark''. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr, 93, 141-144.</ref> A study of the [[Bavaria]]n region of [[Germany]], the European hedgehog (the main prey species) made up 41.7% of the prey by number and 52.1% of the biomass, the maximum representation of hedgehogs known in Europe.<ref name= Förstel_1995>Förstel, V. A. (1995). ''Der Uhu Bubo bubo L. in Nordbayern''. Zeitschrift bayerischer und baden-württembergischer Ornithologen, 34(2/3): 77-93.</ref> Other members of the genus ''[[Erinaceus]]'' are also locally regularly taken, as is the {{convert|575|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[Daurian hedgehog]] (''Mesechinus dauuricus'') in [[Mongolia]].<ref name= Tumurbat/> Studies from [[Greece]] and the [[Czech Republic]] found that the [[northern white-breasted hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus roumanicus'') was the leading prey species.<ref name= Papageorgiou>Papageorgiou, N. K., Vlachos, C. G., & Bakaloudis, D. E. (1993). ''Diet and nest site characteristics of Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) breeding in two different habitats in north-eastern Greece''. Avocetta, 17(1), 49-54.</ref><ref name= Zemanová>Zemanová, K. (2009). ''Potrava výra velkého na střední Moravě''.</ref> Unidentified ''Erinaceus'' hedgehogs almost totally dominated the diet of eagle-owls in [[Stavropol]], [[Russia]], making up 70.9% of the food, only the European rabbit has been found as more significant at the genera level by number in a given dietary study.<ref name= Malovichko>Malovichko, I.L., Gavrilov, А, I., & Fedosov, V.N. (2007). ''Characteristics of distribution, breeding and diet of the Eagle Owl in the steppes of Stavropol Territory''. Committee on birds of prey in the dynamic environment of the Third Millennium.</ref> Studies from both [[Syria]] and [[Kazakhstan]] showed that the {{convert|365|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[long-eared hedgehog]] (''Hemiechinus auritus'') was the most significant prey, making up 25.3% and 33.6% of the prey remains, respectively.<ref name= Shehab>Shehab, A. H. (2004). ''Diet of the Eagle Owl, Bubo bubo, in Syria''. Zoology in the Middle East, 33(1), 21-26.</ref><ref name= Karyakin>Karyakin, I., Kovalenko, A., Levin, A., & Pazhenkova, A. (2009). Eagle Owl in the Aral-Caspian Region, Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation, (17).</ref> After killing hedgehogs, the Eurasian eagle-owls peel the prickly skin off their backs before consumption, frequently resulting in up to dozens of hedgehog backs being found around nests.<ref name= Konig/><ref name= Shehab/><ref name= Wassink/> [[Mole (animal)|Moles]] and [[shrew]]s are readily hunted but are usually only a secondary portion of the diet. Eurasian eagle-owls have been recorded hunting the smallest mammal on earth (by weight) the {{convert|1.8|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Etruscan shrew]] (''Suncus etruscus''), as well as the largest mole on earth, the {{convert|440|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Russian desman]] (''Desmana moschata'').<ref name= Janossy/><ref name= Jaksic/> From the smallest shrew to the heaviest hedgehog, the Eurasian eagle-owl has been verified to hunt the full size range of [[Eulipotyphla|insectivores]]. They've also attacked [[bat]]s of every size available, from the smallest [[Europe]]an bat, the {{convert|5.7|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[common pipistrelle]] (''Pipistrellus pipistrellus''), to the largest species there, the {{convert|59|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[greater noctule bat]] (''Nyctalus lasiopterus''). In the [[Sikhote-Alin]] range of the [[Russian Far East]], bats were found to comprise 5.9% of the remains and, of five local owl species, the Eurasian eagle-owl was the most regular predator of bats in the area.<ref>Rosina, V. V., & Shokhrin, V. P. (2011). ''Bats in the diet of owls from the Russian far East, southern Sikhote Alin''. Hystrix It. J. Mammal., 22, 205-213.</ref>
Larger and more dangerous mammalian prey is not infrequently tackled by Eurasian eagle-owl. Nearly thirty species of [[Carnivora|mammalian carnivores]] have been reported in their diet.<ref name= Voous/> Many of these are [[mustelid]]s, which are the smallest type of carnivore but can defend themselves viciously, even the tiny {{convert|67|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[least weasel]] (''Mustela nivalis'').<ref name= Lourenco>Lourenco, R., & Rabaca, J. (2006) ''Intraguild predation by Eagle Owls in Europe''. Airo 16: 63-68.</ref> Nonetheless, unlike some smaller birds of prey, the Eurasian eagle-owl seems to have no problem subduing various weasels and even [[marten]]s, some of the latter can nearly equal to their own weight, and will kill the young of much larger species such as [[European otter]] (''Lutra lutra'') and [[Eurasian badger]] (''Meles meles'').<ref>Korpimäki, E., & Norrdahl, K. (1989). ''Avian predation on mustelids in Europe 1: occurrence and effects on body size variation and life traits''. Oikos, 205-215.</ref><ref>Ruiz-Olmo, J., Batet, A., Jiménez, J., & Martínez, D. (2005). ''Habitat selection by female otters with small cubs in freshwater habitats in northeast Spain''. Lutra, 48(1), 45-56.</ref><ref>Butler, J. M., & Roper, T. J. (1995). ''Escape tactics and alarm responses in badgers Meles meles: a field experiment''. Ethology, 99(4), 313-322.</ref> However, the single most widely reported carnivore is the [[red fox]] (''Vulpes vulpes''), as they've been recorded in the diet from [[Denmark]] and [[Spain]] to the [[Russian Far East]].<ref name= Jaksic/><ref name="Laursen"/><ref name= Volkov/> Many fox specimens taken by eagle-owls are young individuals or subadults. Some studies posited that the average fox taken as weighing about {{convert|2500|to|3000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, about equal to the eagle-owl's own weight, but another noted fox specimens killed that were estimated to weigh {{convert|8000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, much larger than the eagle-owls.<ref name= Jaksic/><ref name= Leditznig/><ref name=Wassink/><ref name= Schweiger/> At least four other species of foxes have been verified as prey in the [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]].<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Tumurbat/><ref>Geffen, E. (1994). ''Vulpes cana''. Mammalian Species, 1-4.</ref><ref>Larivière, S., & Seddon, P. J. (2001). ''Vulpes rueppelli''. Mammalian Species, 1-5.</ref> [[Raccoon dog]]s (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), averaging {{convert|6500|g|lb|abbr=on}}, have been preyed on in [[Asia]] as well.<ref>Ward, O. G., & Wurster-Hill, D. H. (1990). ''Nyctereutes procyonoides''. Mammalian Species, 1-5.</ref> Other relatively large carnivores have been hunted as well, including invasive [[Egyptian mongoose]] (''Herpestes ichneumon'') in [[Spain]] and [[masked palm civet]]s (''Paguma larvata'') in [[China]], both being roughly cat-sized at averages of {{convert|2300|and|4300|g|lb|abbr=on}}, respectively.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Penteriani/><ref name= Dahmer>Dahmer, T. D. ''Feral/stray dogs and civet mortality on Kau Sai Chau''.</ref> Domestic carnivores including cats (''Felis silvestris catus'') of all sizes and small dogs (''Canis lupus familiaris'') or puppies may on occasion become prey for Eurasian eagle-owls. Cats killed have been estimated to weigh from {{convert|3200|to|7500|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Jaksic/><ref name= Sackl/><ref name= Schweiger/><ref name= Dahmer/> The dogs killed by [[Bavaria]]n eagle-owls were estimated to average {{convert|4000|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Schweiger/> Non-native carnivores such as [[American mink]] (''Neovison vison'') and [[raccoon]] (''Procyon lotor'') have also been preyed on by eagle-owls, which is presumed to incidentally benefit the prey taken in considerably numbers by these rarely checked invasive fur-bearers.<ref>Sidorovich, V. E. (2011). ''Analysis of vertebrate predator-prey community''. Tesey, Minsk, Ukraine.</ref><ref>Aliev, F. F., & Sanderson, G. C. (1966). ''Distribution and status of the raccoon in the Soviet Union''. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 497-502.</ref>
[[File:Capreolus capreolus 2 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg|thumb|left|The roe deer may be the largest prey taken by any living owl, some specimens taken are at least six times as heavy as the eagle-owl itself.]]
The Eurasian eagle-owl is perhaps the only living owl widely reported (if not commonly) to kill the young of ungulates. At least nine species have been identified as their food. It is possible that some ungulates are eaten as carrion but this species, like most owls, normally kills its own food, unlike many [[eagle]]s many of which consume carrion regularly.<ref name= Voous/> Among the ungulate prey recorded are three species of [[deer]] and five species of [[Caprinae|goat-antelopes]], in addition to piglets of [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa'').<ref name= Frey>Frey, H., & Walter, W. (1984). ''Zur Ernährung des Uhus, Bubo bubo (Linnaeus 1758), Aves, an einem alpinen Brutplatz in den Hohen Tauern (Salzburg, Österreich)''. Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien. Serie B für Botanik und Zoologie, 91-99.</ref> Only the weight of the [[roe deer]] (''Capreolus capreolus'') has been widely approximated when taken and specimens killed have included: a {{convert|10000|g|lb|abbr=on}} deer,<ref name= Konig/> a {{convert|13000|g|lb|abbr=on}} specimen<ref>Curry-Lindahl, K. ''Photographic Studies of Some Less Familiar Birds: LXXXIV. Eagle Owl''. British Birds, L: 486-490.</ref> and even, in the small adult size range for this deer, {{convert|17000|g|lb|abbr=on}},<ref>Andrews, Peter (1990) ''Owls, Caves, and Fossils: Predation, Preservation, and Accumulation of Small Mammal Bones in Caves, with an Analysis of the Pleistocene Cave Faunas from Westbury-sub-Mendip, Somerset, UK'' University of Chicago Press. 231 pg.</ref> all considerably larger than the eagle-owls themselves and far larger than any prey known for other owls.<ref name= Voous/> In studies from [[Bavaria]] and [[Austria]], the average weight of roe deer caught was only {{convert|1500|and|2500|g|lb|abbr=on}}, indicating very young deer being typically taken.<ref name= Schweiger/><ref name= Frey/> Even if taken as newborn kids, fawns or calves, the young of other ungulates taken would weigh at least {{convert|2500|to|7000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, from the birth weight of [[ibex]] (''Capra ibex'') to that of [[red deer]] (''Cervus elaphus'').<ref>Levy, N., & Bernadsky, G. (1991). ''Creche behavior of nubian ibex Capra ibex nubiana in the Negev desert highlands, Israel''. Israel Journal of Zoology, 37(3), 125-137.</ref><ref name= Obuch>Obuch, J., & Karaska, D. (2010). ''The Eurasian eagle-owl (Bubo bubo) diet in the Orava Region (N Slovakia) ''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 4, 83-98.</ref> Perhaps even larger, the rare [[domestic sheep]] (''Ovis aries'') taken by eagle-owls can reportedly include “half-grown” individuals.<ref name= Voous/>
=== Birds ===
[[File:Common Wood Pigeon.jpg|thumb|right|In some areas, common wood pigeon are more important prey for Eurasian eagle-owls than any mammal.]]
The Eurasian eagle-owl may hunt at least 300 species of bird. In [[Europe]], the most common avian prey species are the normally feral or domestic {{convert|355|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[rock pigeon]]s (''Columba livia''), although the {{convert|490|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[common wood pigeon]] (''Columba palumbus'') can be locally even more significant. In the [[Netherlands]], the common wood pigeon is the most important prey species, making up 37.3% by number and 38.3% by biomass. Yet another, smaller study of the Netherlands found the rock pigeon to be the primary prey species.<ref name= Wassink/><ref name= CRC>''CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses, 2nd Edition'' by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (2008), {{ISBN|978-1-4200-6444-5}}.</ref> In a dietary study from [[Luxembourg]], the common wood pigeon was the most frequent prey species, making 19% of the remains by number.<ref name= Bayle>Bayle, P., & Schauls, R. (2011). ''Biologie de quatre couples de grand-duc d’Europe Bubo bubo au Luxembourg''. Bull. Soc. Nat. luxemb, 112, 51.</ref> A study from [[Romania]] listed the rock pigeon was the second most frequently recorded prey behind only the Romanian hamster and the largest contributed of biomass.<ref name= Sandor2/> Unusually, in the [[Netherlands]], birds were the primary food in both number (77.6%) and biomass (72%).<ref name= Wassink/> Also, in Luxembourg, eagle-owls hunted birds in general were more regularly than mammals, as nearly 70% of prey remains there were avian.<ref name= Bayle/> At least six other species of [[pigeon]] and [[dove]] have also been recorded as prey. However, perhaps the most significant contributor of prey at the family level is the [[corvid]]s and all available species have been targeted. The {{convert|570|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[carrion crow]] (''Corvus corone'') is the second most widely recorded avian prey species in Europe and, locally, good numbers are also taken of {{convert|490|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[hooded crow]] (''Corvus cornix''), {{convert|245|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[western jackdaw]]s (''Corvus monedula''), {{convert|160|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Eurasian jay]]s (''Garrulus glandarius''), {{convert|1085|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[common raven]]s (''Corvus corax''), {{convert|455|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[rook (bird)|rooks]] (''Corvus corone''), two species each of [[magpie]] and [[chough]] and the {{convert|183|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[spotted nutcracker]] (''Nucifraga caryocatactes''), in rough descending order of reportage in the eagle-owl's diet.<ref name="Malafosse, J. 1985"/><ref name= Wassink/><ref name= Laursen/><ref name= Papageorgiou/><ref name= Malovichko/><ref name= CRC/> In [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]], the carrion crow was the most frequently recorded bird among an exceptionally diverse recorded prey base including no less than 65 bird species there (although birds only comprised 27% of the prey numbers overall).<ref name= Rockenbach>Rockenbach, D. (2005). ''Der Uhu Bubo bubo in Baden-Württemberg- Wie Phönix aus der Asche!'' Ornithol. Anz. 44: 117-122.</ref> Unlike smaller passerines, corvids roost in numbers in relatively open spots, which make them fairly vulnerable to a predator as stealthy and powerful as the eagle-owl.<ref name= Penteriani3>Penteriani, V., Sergio, F., del Mar Delgado, M., Gallardo, M., & Ferrer, M. (2005). ''Biases in population diet studies due to sampling in heterogeneous environments: a case study with the Eagle Owl''. Journal of Field Ornithology, 76(3), 237-244.</ref> More than 17 species of [[Galliformes|gamebirds]] have been recorded in the Eurasian eagle-owl's diet but they are normally taken in small numbers. There are, however, exceptions. In one study conducted in lower [[Austria]], the most frequently identified prey species was the {{convert|405|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[grey partridge]] (''Perdix perdix''), which is the most widely reported gamebird prey for eagle-owls in Europe.<ref name= Janossy/><ref>Frey, V.H. (1973). ''Zur Ökologie niederösterreichischer Uhupopulationen''. Egretta, 16: 1-68.</ref> One study of a “primeval” forested region of [[Finland]] found various [[grouse]] species to be the most significant contributor of biomass, namely in descending order the {{convert|2950|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[western capercaillie]] (''Tetrao urogallus''), the {{convert|1080|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[black grouse]] (''Tetrao tetrix'') and the {{convert|429|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[hazel grouse]] (''Bonasa bonasia'').<ref name= Voous/><ref name= CRC/> In inland areas of [[Norway]], the large forest grouse were also significant biomass contributors.<ref name= Willgohs/> The same forest grouse species were also found to be significant to diet along the [[Pechora River]] in [[Russia]].<ref name= Janossy/> Other gamebirds can be important secondary prey species in different parts of Europe: the {{convert|528|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[red-legged partridge]] (''Alectoris rufa'') in western Europe, the {{convert|615|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[rock partridge]] (''Alectoris graeca'') and the {{convert|535|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[rock ptarmigan]] (''Lagopus mutus'') in alpine highlands, the {{convert|1135|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[ring-necked pheasant]] (''Phasianus colchicus'') in eastern Europe and the {{convert|570|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[willow ptarmigan]] (''Lagopus lagopus'') in the sub-Arctic zone.<ref name= Schaefer2/><ref name= Donazar2/><ref name= CRC/><ref>Vondrácek, J. (1983). ''PUÍSPEVEK К POTRAVitfEKOLÓGH A SLOZENf POTRAVY VYRA VELKÉHO NA SEVEROCESÌCYCH LOKALITÂCH''. Sylvia, 22: 39-54.</ref> In [[Turkey]], the most significant prey by number was the {{convert|503|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[chukar partridge|chukar]] (''Alectoris chukar''), comprising 20.5% of remains.<ref name= DeCupere/> A [[Korea]]n study in two habitat types (forest and field) found that ring-necked pheasants were the main prey species, making up an average of 19.33% by number and 34.81% by biomass.<ref>Choi, C. (2007). Y.; Nam, H.–Y.; Lee, W.–S. ''Diets and foraging tactics of Eurasian eagle owls (Bubo bubo) in two different habitat types''. Kor. J. Env. Eco, 21, 30-37.</ref> Other [[Bird of prey|birds of prey]] are perhaps second only to [[pigeon]]s and [[corvid]]s amongst avian contributors to the diet (their ecological relationships with eagle-owls are explored in more detail below).<ref name= Voous/>
[[File:Uhu im Flug.jpg|thumb|left|Here, carrion crows mob a Eurasian eagle-owl. It is with good cause as many as taken by night by the eagle-owl.]]
Among coastal and some wetland areas, various [[water bird]]s can come to contribute a large portion of both prey numbers and prey biomass. This may include more than 50 species of [[shorebird]] (from the one of the smallest [[Red-necked stint|sandpiper]]s to the largest species of [[Great black-backed gull|gull]]), more than 30 species of [[waterfowl]], more than 10 species of [[heron]]s, more than 8 species of [[Rail (bird)|rail]]s and any [[grebe]]s, [[cormorant]]s or other [[water bird]]s that are available.<ref name= Voous/> The most regularly reported water bird prey in Europe were, roughly in this order, the {{convert|343|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[common moorhen]]s (''Gallinula chloropus''), the {{convert|836|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[Eurasian coot]] (''Fulica atra''), {{convert|1140|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[mallard]]s (''Anas platyrhynchos''), {{convert|284|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[black-headed gull]] (''Chroicocephalus ridibundus''), and the {{convert|340|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Eurasian teal]] (''Anas crecca'').<ref name= Voous/><ref name= CRC/> The diet of a handful of eagle-owl pairs in the [[Riau Islands Province]] of [[France]] were found to be dominated by water birds, especially the {{convert|1154|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[yellow-legged gull]] (''Larus michahellis''), the colonial abundance of which allowed the eagle-owls to atypically occupy these small islands.<ref name= CRC/><ref>Vidal, P. & Bayle, P. (1997). ''Le Grand-Duc d'Europe bubo bubo : Une nouvelle espèce d'oiseau nicheuse sur les îles de Marseille (Bouches-du-Rhône)''. Faune de Provence, 18: 55-57.</ref> The diet of eagle-owls in [[Norway]] was dominated in coastal areas by water birds, overall for the nation 53% of the food was made of birds, the species most commonly identified as caught being the {{convert|388|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[mew gull]] (''Larus canus''), {{convert|430|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Atlantic puffin|common puffin]] (''Fratercula arctica'') and {{convert|2070|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[common eider]] (''Somateria mollissima''). Despite access to large seabird breeding colonies, almost all large bird species hunted in Norway, including large forest [[grouse]] in more inland areas, were apparently fully-grown adults and most water birds were caught while resting on open coastal waters.<ref name= Willgohs/><ref name= CRC/> Eagle-owls in northwestern [[Poland]], an area heavily dotted with lakes, relied on birds for about 64% of the diet, more than half of which were water birds. The main prey species there was the Eurasian coot, at nearly 15% of the prey numbers.<ref name= Janossy/> In [[Primorsky Krai]] in [[Russia]], 53.2% of the food for the eagle-owls were made up of birds, predominantly water birds with the primary prey species being the {{convert|260|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[crested auklet]] (''Aethia cristatella'' ) (26.9%).<ref name= CRC/><ref>Kolomiytsev, N.P, & Poddubnaya, N.Y. (2007). ''The biology of the eagle owl Bubo bubo in the Lazo Nature Reserve (South Primorye) ''. Russian Ornithological Journal 2007, Volume 16, Issue Express 364: 835-840.</ref> In the [[Russian Far East]], similarly, birds occupy up to 57.6% of the diet, a lion's share of which are water birds. In this study, the [[grey red-backed vole]] and [[reed vole]] (''Microtus fortis'') were the most numerous identified individual species but in some years the extremely large [[Japanese cormorant]] (''Phalacrocorax capillatus''), at {{convert|2820|g|lb|abbr=on}}, were more numerous as prey than either vole.<ref name= Volkov>Volkov, S.V., Sharikov, A.V. & Morozov, V.V. (2009) ''Owls in Northern Eurasia''.</ref><ref name= CRC/> Water birds were found to be even more important in the diet in [[Korea]], as in wetland habitat, with birds in general comprising 68.9% by number and 85.3% by biomass there, but in adjacent upland areas birds were slightly secondary to mammals, which made up 38.7% by number and 64.7% by biomass, led by the brown rat.<ref name= Shin/> In Korea, the mallard and the similar [[spot-billed duck]] (''Anas poecilorhyncha'') made up 38.1% of the biomass.<ref name= Shin/> Other recorded bird species in the Eurasian eagle-owl's diet includes all type of birds found in their range, including [[bustard]]s, [[sandgrouse]], [[parrot]]s, [[cuckoo]]s, [[swift]]s, the {{convert|67|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[hoopoe]] (''Upupa epops''), the {{convert|56.5|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[European bee-eater]] (''Merops apiaster''), the {{convert|31|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[common kingfisher]] (''Alcedo atthis''), the {{convert|146|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[European roller]] (''Coracias garrulus''), at least seven species of [[woodpecker]] (from the [[Lesser spotted woodpecker|smallest]] to the [[Black woodpecker|largest]] European species) and more than 80 species of [[passerine]].<ref name= Voous/><ref name= CRC/> Among passerines, the only family reported widely as prey besides corvids are [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]]. In the [[Italian Alps]], ''[[Turdus]]'' species were the fourth most frequently recorded type of prey.<ref name= Marchesi/> In particular, the abundant {{convert|103|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Eurasian blackbird]] (''Turdus merula'') is widely reported to be taken by eagle-owls.<ref name= DeCupere/><ref name= Simeonov/><ref name= CRC/> As thrushes are relatively small, at {{convert|55|to|130|g|oz|abbr=on}} among the species known to be predated, pairs in the Italian Alps who depended more so on thrushes usually showed lower productivity during nesting attempts.<ref name= Marchesi/>
Wild birds found in their diet have ranged in size from the {{convert|9.5|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Eurasian wren]] (''Troglodytes troglodytes'') to about 15 species weighing over {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Janossy/> One of the largest wild adult bird verified as prey was the {{convert|3300|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[greylag goose]] (''Anser anser'').<ref name= Simeonov/> Other large species have been hunted, some may be cases of nest robbery rather than large adults but none are heavier than the largest mammalian prey that eagle-owls have taken including [[greater white-fronted goose]] (''Anser albifrons''), [[bar-headed goose]] (''Anser indicus''), [[great cormorant]] (''Phalacrocorax carbo''), [[Himalayan snowcock]] (''Tetraogallus himalayensis'') and [[demoiselle crane]] (''Anthropoides virgo''), all averaging around {{convert|2500|g|lb|abbr=on}}, the {{convert|3500|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[swan goose]] (''Anser cygnoides''), the {{convert|5500|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[common crane]] (''Grus grus'') and the {{convert|8000|g|lb|abbr=on}} (between the dimorphic sexes) [[great bustard]] (''Otis tarda'').<ref name= Willgohs/><ref name= Janossy/><ref name= Malovichko/><ref name= Rockenbach/><ref>Vazhov, S. V., Karyakin, I. V., Nikolenko, E. G., Barashkova, A. N., Smelansky, I. E., Tomilenko, A. A., & Bekmansurov, R. H. (2011). ''Raptors of the Ukok Plateau, Russia''. Raptors Conservation, (22).</ref><ref>Mitev, U. & Boev, H. (2006). ''Хранителен спектър на бухала (Bubo bubo (L., 1758))(Aves: Strigiformes) в две холоценски находища от Североизточна България''. Hist. nat. bulgarica, 17, 149-161.</ref> Eurasian eagle-owls have also hunted adult male western capercaillie, which average about {{convert|4100|g|lb|abbr=on}}, although usually the much smaller females, at {{convert|1800|g|lb|abbr=on}}, are more regularly taken.<ref name= Hume/> Although they rarely take domestic birds, the range of sizes killed is just as dramatic, from loose [[budgerigar]]s (''Melopsittacus undulatus''), weighing only {{convert|29|g|oz|abbr=on}}, to [[domestic turkey]]s, which may easily weigh over {{convert|8|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Simeonov/><ref name= Geidel/>
=== Other prey ===
[[File:Rana temporaria LC0183.jpg|thumb|right|The common frog, perhaps the only amphibian taken in large numbers by Eurasian eagle-owls.]]
[[Reptile]]s and [[amphibian]]s are only an occasionally contributor to the diet in many regions. Most of the 30 or so species recorded have been taken as supplemental prey in [[Spain]], i.e. several [[lizard]]s (including [[gecko]]s), [[frog]]s and [[toad]]s, [[snake]]s and, to a lesser degree, [[turtle]]s.<ref name= Jaksic/><ref name= Penteriani/><ref name= Donazar2/><ref name= Donazar3/> One species widely and commonly reported in [[Europe]] outside of the Iberian region is the {{convert|23|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[common frog]] (''Rana temporaria''). It was the leading prey, making up 45% of the prey found at nests in [[Rogaland]], [[Norway]].<ref>Hagen, Y. (1950). ''Noen iakttagelser over hubro (Bubo bubo L.) i Rogaland''. Stav. Mus. Arbok, 93-110.</ref> Also, the common frog was the second most abundant prey species in studies from southern [[Sweden]], [[Valais]] and [[Engadin]] in [[Switzerland]], [[Province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola|Verbano-Cusi-Ossola]], [[Italy]] and an enormous study from [[Slovakia]], in the latter 10,476 frogs recorded making up 28.2% of the prey.<ref name= Schaefer/><ref name="Wagner, G. 1970"/><ref name= Obuch/><ref>Arlettaz, R. (1988). ''Statut du Hibou grand-duc, Bubo bubo, en Valais central''. In Bulletin de la Murithienne (No. 106, pp. 3-24).</ref><ref>Blonda, R. ''Dieta del gufo reale Bubo bubo nella provincia del Verbano Cusio Ossola Alpi centro-occidentali italiane: confronto tra diverse tipologie ambientali''. Parco Naturale Alpe Veglia e Devero.</ref> There are no records of vicious fights between snakes and Eurasian eagle-owls as there are with the great horned owl, with the horned owl sometimes losing its life after attacking a snake. Perhaps with their larger size and greater power, the eagle-owl can more easily overpower any snakes they encounter, although most snakes in Europe and temperate Asia are not particularly large.<ref>Olalla‐Tárraga, M. Á., Rodríguez, M. Á., & Hawkins, B. A. (2006). ''Broad‐scale patterns of body size in squamate reptiles of Europe and North America''. Journal of Biogeography, 33(5), 781-793.</ref><ref>Bent, A. C. 1938. ''Life histories of North American birds of prey, Part 2''. U.S. National Museum Bulletin 170:295-357.</ref> Like the golden eagle, the eagle-owl may attack [[spur-thighed tortoise]]s (''Testudo graeca''). In [[Lebanon]], a “large adult” tortoise, which would be at least as heavy as the eagle-owl itself, was among their food items, although how they handle and eat this large, hard-shelled prey is not clear.<ref name= Papageorgiou/><ref name= Bayle/> Eurasian eagle-owls also opportunistically prey on fish, although never in large numbers, as fish are likely to be taken while encountered incidentally during hunts for other prey such as water birds. This species is known to take a greater diversity of fish (more than 30 species verified) and is more widely reported to hunt them than the great horned owl. Most of the fish recorded are medium-sized, with at least 10 each of various kinds of [[carp]] or [[cod]], but several species averaging more than {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}} in mature mass have been taken, including [[Barbus barbus|common barbell]] (''Barbus barbus''), [[common carp]] (''Cyprinus carpio''), [[northern pike]] (''Esox lucius'') and a few species of [[trout]], even bigger marine predators like the [[anglerfish]] (''Lophius piscatorius'') and [[European conger]] (''Conger conger''). However, in many cases small, young specimens may be caught of these large fish species rather than full-grown adults.<ref name= Willgohs/><ref>Russ, H. 2010. ''The Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo): a fish bone accumulator on Pleistocene cave sites? '' Journal of Taphonomy 8(4): 281-290.</ref> Several species of insect and [[invertebrate]] have been identified in eagle-owl pellets. In some cases, these may be undigested insects in the stomachs of birds eaten by the eagle-owl but Eurasian eagle-owls have been verified as actively hunting insects and aquatic invertebrates such as [[snail]]s and [[crab]]s before.<ref name= Voous/> Especially diverse in the diet are ground-based [[beetle]]s, at least 20 species have been identified mainly those in the ''[[Carabus]]'' (ground beetle) genus.<ref name= Geidel/>
== Interspecies predatory relationships ==
[[File:Buteo buteo 1 (Lukasz Lukasik).jpg|thumb|left|The common buzzard, although near the top of the avian food chain, is often a victim to predation by Eurasian eagle-owl.]]
The Eurasian eagle-owl is a very formidable bird of prey but its diet broadly overlaps with other European owls. All species of owl in the Europe and northern Asia hunt rodents, as does the eagle-owl, and in many the very same microtine rodents such as [[vole]]s and [[lemming]]s will be favored.<ref name= CRC/><ref name= Europe>Mikkola, H. (1983). ''Owls of Europe''. T & AD Poyser Books.</ref><ref>Herrera, C. M., & Hiraldo, F. (1976). ''Food-niche and trophic relationships among European owls''. Ornis Scandinavica, 29-41.</ref> Even the {{convert|58.5|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[Eurasian pygmy owl]] (''Glaucidium passerinum''), at a whooping one-fortieth of the weight of an eagle-owl, will take much the same rodent prey as eagle-owls in adjacent habitats.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= CRC/> The only European owls to favor non-rodent prey are the {{convert|92|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[European scops owl]] (''Otus scops'') and {{convert|169|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[little owl]] (''Athene noctua''), both of which most regularly consume [[invertebrate]]s. However, little owls also take rodents and small mammals, especially in the winter months (while scops owl migrate to [[Africa]] for the winter).<ref name= Konig/> The European owls with the most similar diets to eagle-owls are {{convert|475|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[Tawny owl|tawny]] (''Strix aluco'') and {{convert|785|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[Ural owl]]s (''Strix uralensis''), although both are considerably smaller and less powerful and more specialized to hunt in wooded environments. These two ''Strix'' species are highly territorial and sedentary like the eagle-owl and capable of taking a broad range of prey, including good numbers of birds and larger prey such as rabbits (for the tawny owl) and hares (for the Ural owl) of up to at least twice their own weight.<ref name= Voous/> Studies have indicated that even while selected similar prey species as the eagle-owl, smaller owls including the long-eared, tawny and Ural owls select smaller individual prey items, being more likely to take small, juveniles rather than optimal, large adults as does the eagle-owl.<ref name= CRC/><ref>Nilsson, I. N. (1984). ''Prey weight, food overlap, and reproductive output of potentially competing Long-eared and Tawny Owls''. Ornis Scandinavica, 176-182.</ref><ref>Korpimäki, E., & Sulkava, S. (1987). ''Diet and breeding performance of Ural owls Strix uralensis''. Ornis Fennica, 64, 57-66.</ref> Similar rodent prey is also often taken by many diurnal birds of prey, especially [[buzzard]]s, [[harrier (bird)|harriers]] and small [[falcon]]s.<ref>Clark, W. S., & Porter, R. (1999). ''A field guide to the raptors of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> However, due its greater size and power than overlapping owls and smaller diurnal raptors, it generally takes more diverse and larger prey than most overlapping raptorial birds.<ref name= Voous/>
In the [[Iberian peninsula]], the Eurasian eagle-owl is part of a complex guild of predators that have evolved to survive mostly on [[European rabbit]]s. Among this guild, [[golden eagle]]s (''Aquila chrysaetos'') were recorded per one study to rely on rabbits for 40% of the diet, the eagle-owl for 49% of the diet, the [[Spanish imperial eagle]] (''Aquila adalberti'') for 50% of the diet, the [[Bonelli's eagle]] (''Aquila fasciata'') for 61% of the diet and the [[Iberian lynx]] (''Lynx pardinus'') for 79% of the diet.<ref name= Voous/> Elsewhere, the Spanish imperial eagle and eagle-owl are considered to outflank the golden and even the Bonelli's eagle as the most specialized avian predator of rabbits in the Iberian region.<ref name="Lloveras, L. 2009"/> Other predators, such as [[common buzzard]] (''Buteo buteo''), [[northern goshawk]] (''Accipiter gentilis'') [[black kite]] (''Milvus migrans'') [[Wildcat|Iberian wildcat]] (''Felis silvestris tartessia''), [[red fox]], [[stone marten]] (''Martes foina'') and introduced [[Egyptian mongoose]] also prey heavily on rabbits in Spain, but are more generalized and less reliant than the above predators.<ref>Gil-Sanchez, J. M., Valenzuela, G., & Sanchez, J. F. (1999). ''Iberian wild cat Felis silvestris tartessia predation on rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus: functional response and age selection''. Acta Theriologica, 44(4), 421-428.</ref><ref>Mañosa, S. (1994). ''Goshawk diet in a Mediterranean area of northeastern Spain''. Journal of Raptor Research, 28(2), 84-92.</ref><ref>Viñuela, J., & Veiga, J. P. (1992). ''Importance of rabbits in the diet and reproductive success of Black Kites in southwestern Spain''. Ornis Scandinavica, 132-138.</ref><ref>Mañosa, S., & Cordero, P. J. (1992). ''Seasonal and sexual variation in the diet of the common buzzard in northeastern Spain''. Journal of Raptor Research, 26(4), 235-238.</ref> All these powerful predators do not generally compete directly for food but conflicts may ensue over the rights to territories and nesting sites amongst the birds. Being nocturnal in activity, however, the Eurasian eagle-owl does not tend to compete as directly as do the three eagle species and even these are discreetly segregated by habitat preferences, the goldens preferring open, steep cliffs, the Bonelli's favoring densely vegetated areas mixed with rocky spots and the imperial favoring relatively flat open woodlands.<ref>Moreno, S., Beltrán, J. F., Cotilla, I., Kuffner, B., Laffite, R., Jordán, G., & Villafuerte, R. (2008). ''Long-term decline of the European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in south-western Spain''. Wildlife Research, 34(8), 652-658.</ref> Among these eagles, the golden eagle tends to have the most similar habitat preferences to the Eurasian eagle-owl and across a broad band of overlapping distribution, the two are considered nearly ecological equivalents by day and night. However, good-sized female golden eagles are up to twice as heavy as an average eagle-owl, so seem to have a considerable advantage in size and power.<ref name= Voous/> Conversely, to support their large size and large territory needs, the golden eagle cannot survive on small and diverse prey nearly as successfully as the eagle-owl. Among the Iberian peninsula rabbit-eating guild, the species with wider ranges, the eagle-owl and the golden and Bonelli's eagles, have had some degree of success living off of alternate prey following the devastation of the rabbit population due to [[rabbit haemorrhagic disease]]. The two rabbit predators endemic to Iberia, the Iberian lynx and Spanish imperial eagle, have been devastated by the reduction and other causes and both are threatened species today.<ref>Delibes, M., Rodríguez, A., & Ferreras, P. (2000). ''Action plan for the conservation of the Iberian lynx in Europe (Lynx pardinus) (No. 111-115) ''. Council of Europe.</ref><ref>Real, R., Barbosa, A. M., Rodríguez, A., García, F. J., Vargas, J. M., Palomo, L. J., & Delibes, M. (2009). ''Conservation biogeography of ecologically interacting species: the case of the Iberian lynx and the European rabbit''. Diversity and Distributions, 15(3), 390-400.</ref><ref>González, L. M., Bustamante, J., & Hiraldo, F. (1990). ''Factors influencing the present distribution of the Spanish imperial eagle, Aquila adalberti''. Biological Conservation, 51(4), 311-319.</ref><ref>Ferrer, M., Penteriani, V., Balbontı́n, J., & Pandolfi, M. (2003). ''The proportion of immature breeders as a reliable early warning signal of population decline: evidence from the Spanish imperial eagle in Doñana''. Biological Conservation, 114(3), 463-466.</ref>
Equally or even more so than the great horned owl, the Eurasian eagle-owl is a threat to any smaller type of raptor it encounters, whether other owls or diurnal birds of prey. All told, more than 20 species of [[accipitrid]], 15 species of [[owl]] and 9 species of [[falcon]] have been found amongst their prey. The Eurasian eagle-owl is the primary predator of other birds of prey throughout Eurasia, not even the prolific raptor-killing [[northern goshawk]] (''Accipiter gentilis'') equals the sheer number of raptors taken.<ref name= Lourenco/><ref name= Mikkola3>Mikkola, H. (1976). ''Owls killing and killed by other owls and raptors in Europe''. British Birds, 69, 144-154.</ref><ref>Lourenço, R., Santos, S. M., Rabaça, J. E., & Penteriani, V. (2011). ''Superpredation patterns in four large European raptors''. Population ecology, 53(1), 175-185.</ref> Up to 6% of the overall food by number and 36% by prey biomass for Eurasian eagle-owls can be comprised by other raptorial birds.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Lourenco/> The primary raptorial prey taken by Eurasian eagle-owls in Europe are two species: the {{convert|300|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[long-eared owl]] and the {{convert|776|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[common buzzard]].<ref name= Voous/><ref name= CRC/> Both are taken in such large numbers that they rank in the top five most regularly hunted bird species in Europe. In [[Luxembourg]], the long-eared owl and common buzzard were the fourth and fifth most regularly hunted prey species.<ref name= Bayle/> Other high rankings have included the long-eared owl being the fourth most regular prey species in [[Bavaria]] and the buzzard being the third most regular prey species in a study from the [[Czech Republic]].<ref name="Zemanová"/><ref name= Förstel_1983>Förstel, A. (1983) ''Bestandsaufstockung des Uhus Bubo bubo in Bayern''. Anzeiger der Ornithologischen Gesellschaft in Bayern, 22, 145–167.
</ref> While migrating, long-eared owls appear to select areas to move through partially based on whether or not eagle-owls are detected, thus eagle-owls have a very serious influence on the behaviour of this prey.<ref name= Hume/> Despite the large numbers taken of both of these, the more scarce eagle-owl does not seem to have a serious deleterious effect on their overall population, especially compared to [[Human impact on the environment|anthropogenic factors]].<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Mikkola3/>
[[File:Waldohreule in freier Wildbahn.jpg|thumb|right|The long-eared owl is the most regularly taken as prey of any raptorial bird by Eurasian eagle-owls.]]
Other than these two species, a large share of the raptorial prey for eagle-owls is made up of other owls. Given that all European owls are to some extent nocturnal, they may be encountered and killed upon detection by the Eurasian eagle-owl. In [[Europe]], it has killed every other species of owl, from the tiny [[Eurasian pygmy-owl|pygmy owl]] and [[European scops owl|scops owl]] to the large {{convert|1078|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[great grey owl]] and the {{convert|2040|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[snowy owl]].<ref name= Mikkola3/> The Eurasian eagle-owl is the only raptor that has been known to prey on [[snowy owl]] on multiple occasions.<ref name= CRC/><ref name= Europe/><ref name= Mikkola3/> However, the threat Eurasian eagle-owls poses to other raptors can be exaggerated.<ref name= Solonen>Solonen, T. (2011). ''Impact of dominant predators on territory occupancy and reproduction of subdominant ones within a guild of birds of prey''. Open Ornithology Journal, 4, 23-29.</ref> Occasionally, with adequate mammal prey populations, they can nest as close as a few dozen meters of other raptors and never harass them.<ref name= Europe/> When nesting in the same groves as the {{convert|1175|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[long-legged buzzard]]s (''Buteo rufinus'') in southeastern [[Bulgaria]], Eurasian eagle-owls did not predate the buzzards at any point.<ref name= CRC/><ref>Milchev, B. (2009). ''Breeding biology of the Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufinus in SE Bulgaria, nesting also in quarries''. Avocetta, 33, 25-32.</ref> Long-legged buzzards have been killed however in [[Kazakhstan]].<ref name= Karyakin/> Even in those occasional cases where they pick off one or several raptors, they do not effect the overall population, unless the raptorial prey is already heavily diminished due to some other (often human-based) cause. For example, despite both being a known predator of both, they did not significantly depress numbers of either [[northern goshawk]]s or [[tawny owl]]s in southern [[Finland]].<ref name= Solonen/> One study showed that many raptors engage in spatial avoidance during potential encounters with Eurasian eagle-owls and while the predation by eagle-owls did decrease raptor population densities, they seldom caused declines in breeding success or altered habitat occupancy.<ref name= Sergio2>Sergio, F., & Hiraldo, F. (2008). ''Intraguild predation in raptor assemblages: a review''. Ibis, 150(s1), 132-145.</ref>
Discreet habitat preferences may coincidentally spare many owls, as owls from the genera ''[[Strix (genus)|Strix]]'', ''[[Pygmy owl|Glaucidium]]'', ''[[Aegolius]]'' and the {{convert|320|g|oz|abbr=on}} [[northern hawk-owl]] (''Surnia ulula'') tend to restrict both nesting and their hunting forays to more enclosed areas of woodland than habitats inhabited by the eagle-owls.<ref name= Europe/><ref>Hakkarainen, H., & Korpimäki, E. (1996). ''Competitive and predatory interactions among raptors: an observational and experimental study''. Ecology, 1134–1142.</ref> Meanwhile, ''[[Asio]]'', ''[[Otus (bird)|Otus]]'', ''[[Athene (bird)|Athene]]'' and [[barn owl]]s owls tend to hunt in more open habitats than the edges favored by eagle-owls.<ref name= Voous/> However, habitat preferences are never enough to spare any of these genera from predation by the great eagle-owl. In the [[Italian Alps]], despite differing habitat preferences and partially overlapping prey, several tawny owls were killed by eagle-owls.<ref>Sergio, F., Marchesi, L., Pedrini, P., & Penteriani, V. (2007). ''Coexistence of a generalist owl with its intraguild predator: distance-sensitive or habitat-mediated avoidance?'' Animal Behaviour, 74(6), 1607–1616.</ref> Woodland nesting owl species tend to nest in tree hollows, many of which are too small for an eagle-owl to access, so are somewhat less likely to be picked off at their nests. Open-country owls that tend to nest in open-access nesting sites like [[short-eared owl]]s and [[little owl]]s may be somewhat more vulnerable at the nest. The great numbers of long-eared owls taken, since it often nest in dense, protective thickets, are probably adult or immature owls attempting to hunt. In [[Europe]], Eurasian eagle-owls are generally the only owls to regularly nest in rocky habitats. This is not the case in arid desert-like regions, where limited nesting options frequently force diverse owls to use rocky areas as nesting sites.<ref name= Konig/><ref name= Europe/> However, the cliffs and other rocky areas preferred by Eurasian eagle-owls are also utilized by several species of diurnal raptor in Eurasia. In [[Spain]], [[golden eagle]]s, [[Bonelli's eagle]]s and [[peregrine falcon]]s (''Falco peregrinus'') most often nest on cliffs. Large scavenging birds such as [[cinereous vulture]]s (''Aegypius monachus''), [[bearded vulture]]s (''Gypaetus barbatus''), [[Eurasian griffon]]s (''Gyps fulvus''), [[Egyptian vulture]] (''Neophron percnopterus'') and [[common raven]]s also often nests on the same Iberian cliffs. While the two eagles nested at great distances from one another (they are known to be territorial towards each other), the eagle-owl nesting within {{convert|2|to|3|km|mi|abbr=on}} of the other species. In these cliff nests, the only considerable predatory interaction was the eagle-owls appearing to predate the peregrine falcons.<ref>Martínez, J. E., Martínez, J. A., Zuberogoitia, I., Zabala, J., Redpath, S. M., & Calvo, J. F. (2008). ''The effect of intra-and interspecific interactions on the large-scale distribution of cliff-nesting raptors''. Ornis Fennica, 85(1), 13.</ref> In the [[Tibetan Plateau]], [[upland buzzard]]s (''Buteo hemilasius'') also seem to favor similar habitats and both the eagle-owl and buzzard take similar prey there.<ref name= Qinghu/> In general, the eagle-owl can nest closer to diurnal raptors because, as a nocturnal animal, it will not actively compete for territories as it would with other members of its own species.<ref name= Voous/>
While owls are apparently often killed by Eurasian eagle-owls while actively hunting, diurnal raptors are often ambushed at night at their large, conspicuous nests since they are easily located during hunting forays and the raptors are nearly defenseless in nocturnal conditions. The eagle-owl has been specified as the primary predator of common buzzards, peregrine falcons, [[common kestrel]] (''Falco tinnunculus'') and [[black kite]]s.<ref name= Sergio2/><ref name= Brambilla/><ref>Sergio, F., Marchesi, L., & Pedrini, P. (2003). ''Spatial refugia and the coexistence of a diurnal raptor with its intraguild owl predator''. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72(2), 232-245.</ref><ref>Sergio, F., Scandolara, C., Marchesi, L., Pedrini, P., & Penteriani, V. (2005). ''Effect of agro‐forestry and landscape changes on Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) in the Alps: implications for conservation''. Animal Conservation, 8(1), 17-25.</ref> The common buzzard and {{convert|184|g|oz|abbr=on}}[[common kestrel]] are probably the most often selected diurnal raptors because they inhabit the edges most often hunted by the eagle-owls. Studies have shown that {{convert|743|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[peregrine falcon]] experience lower productivity in areas where they nest closely to eagle-owls, as the eagle-owls pick off both nestlings and adults by night. However, peregrine populations were not hugely effected except in cases where small reintroductions were attempted of falcons or falcon populations were already rare due to other causes.<ref name= CRC/><ref name= Brambilla>Brambilla, M., Rubolini, D., & Guidali, F. (2006). ''Eagle Owl Bubo bubo proximity can lower productivity of cliff-nesting Peregrines Falco peregrinus''. Ornis Fennica, 83(1), 20.</ref> The northern goshawk is itself a serious predator of other raptors. The eagle-owl is the goshawk's only major predator, although goshawks are not as intensely hunted as are buzzards due to their more deeply wooded preferred nesting habitat.<ref>Kenward, R. (2006) ''The Goshawk''. Poyser Monographs, Poyser T & AD: London.</ref>
Generally speaking, there appears to be rather strictly adhered size hierarchy among birds of prey and the very largest raptorial prey attacked by Eurasian eagle-owl tend to roughly equal to their own size. Larger raptors, such as [[eagle]]s and [[vulture]]s, seem to be largely invulnerable to eagle-owls. However, in [[Scandinavia]], there are two cases of eagle-owls preying on “fairly large” nestlings of [[white-tailed eagle]]s (''Haliaeetus albicilla'').<ref name= Mikkola3/> Given the size, average adult weight of {{convert|4780|g|lb|abbr=on}}, and formidable character of this eagle, it is possible that the young of other raptors larger than themselves may too be attacked. [[Eastern imperial eagle]]s (''Aquila heliaca''), which are nearly as large as the white-tailed eagle at an average weight of {{convert|3215|g|lb|abbr=on}}, have been killed by eagle-owls in [[Kazakhstan]].<ref name= Watson>Watson, J. (2010). ''The golden eagle''. Poyser Monographs; A&C Black.</ref> Remarkable, considering the greater threat that the eagle normally poses to the eagle-owl than vica versa, it appeared a golden eagle was amongst the prey remains found around a nest in the [[French Pyrenees]].<ref>Cantegrel-Gassiot, L., Pagoaga, A., R. & C., & Rieu, L. (2015). ''Le Grand-duc d’ Europe Bubo bubo dans les Pyrénées occidentales: état des connai s sances actuel les et bi lan de 10 années de prospections''. Le Casseur d’os vol. 14 – 2014, pp. 71-87.</ref> Cases in Spain where large, formidable birds of prey, the [[Egyptian vulture]] (''Neophron percnopterus'') and [[Bonelli's eagle]], that are roughly equal in size to the eagle-owls, both weighing just over {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, have been predated, these seem to be taken from the nest or shortly after independence and rare occurrences.<ref name= Serrano/><ref>Tella, J. L., & Mañosa, S. (1993). ''Eagle owl predation Egyptian Vulture and Northern Goshawk-Possible effect of a decrease in European Rabbit availability''. Journal of Raptor Research, 27(2), 111-112.</ref> However, in [[Turkey]], the eagle-owl is apparently a regular and serious predator of Bonelli's eagles.<ref>Vaassen, E. W. ''Status and occurrence of Bonelli’s Eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus, in Turkey and Eastern Mediterranean–A Population Estimate''. Raptor Research & Rehabilitation Center Turkey.</ref> The Eurasian eagle-owl predates the largest members of the most species-rich diurnal raptor genera: the {{convert|900|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[northern goshawk]]s from the genus ''[[Accipiter]]'', the {{convert|1375|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[upland buzzard]]s from the genus ''[[Buteo]]'' and the {{convert|1460|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[gyrfalcon]]s (''F. rusticolus'') of the genus ''[[Falco (bird)|Falco]]''.<ref name= Europe/> Additional large raptors, i.e. those that can average {{convert|1000|g|lb|abbr=on}} or more in body mass, taken as prey include {{convert|1485|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[osprey]] (''Pandion haliaetus''), the {{convert|1080|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[red kite]]s (''Milvus milvus''), {{convert|1700|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[short-toed eagle]]s (''Circaetus gallicus''), the {{convert|2205|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[greater spotted eagle]] (''Clanga clanga''), the {{convert|1370|g|lb|abbr=on}} [[lesser spotted eagle]] (''Clanga pomarina''), and the [[rough-legged buzzard]]s (''Buteo lagopus'') and [[saker falcon]]s (''Falco cherrug''), in both of which females average more than {{convert|1000|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Voous/><ref name= Serrano/><ref name= Watson/><ref>Lourenço, R., Penteriani, V., del Mar Delgado, M., Marchi-Bartolozzi, M., & Rabaça, J. E. (2011). ''Kill before being killed: an experimental approach supports the predator-removal hypothesis as a determinant of intraguild predation in top predators''. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 65(9), 1709–1714.</ref><ref>Miltschev, B., & Menzel, J. (2012). ''Rupfung eines weiblichen Schreiadlers Aquila pomarina durch einen Uhu Bubo bubo''. Ornithologische Mitteilungen, 64(1/2), 21-23.</ref><ref>Gombobaatar, S., Sumiya, D., Shagdarsuren, O., Potapov, E., & Fox, N. (2004). ''Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug milvipes Jerdon) mortality in Central Mongolia and population threats''. Mongolian Journal of Biological Sciences, 2(2), 13-21.</ref> The taking of rough-legged buzzards and snowy owls must be confined to full-grown victims, since they nest further north than Eurasian eagle-owls.<ref name= Voous/> Eurasian eagle-owls also hunt the smallest raptors available, including those such as [[lesser kestrel]]s (''Falco naumanni'') and [[Japanese sparrowhawk]]s (''Accipiter gularis'') that weigh less than {{convert|150|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Volkov/> Some of these are cases of eagle-owls killing nestlings or fledglings but they can easily overtake adult buzzards, goshawks and falcons of any size.<ref name= Voous/>
=== Predation ===
In rare cases, other predators may kill a Eurasian eagle-owl. In [[Europe]], there is one case of a [[white-tailed eagle]] killing an eagle-owl and there are at least four known incidents of eagle-owls being killed by [[golden eagle]]s.<ref name= Mikkola3/> Also, an eagle-owl was found among the prey remains at a golden eagle eyrie in [[Mongolia]].<ref>Ellis, D. H., Tsengeg, P., Whitlock, P., & Ellis, M. H. (2000). ''Predators as prey at a Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos eyrie in Mongolia''. Ibis, 142(1), 139-142.</ref> An eagle-owl was also found amongst the prey in the nest of [[steppe eagle]]s (''Aquila nipalensis'') in [[Altai Krai]], [[Russia]].<ref>Vazhov, S. V., Bachtin, R. F., Barashkova, A. N., & Smelansky, I. E. (2013). ''On the Study of the Steppe Eagle in the Altai Kray, Russia''. Raptors Conservation, (27).</ref> In 2016, a large female subadult [[Bonelli's eagle]] (''Aquila fasciata'') apparently preyed upon a three-year-old male Eurasian eagle-owl in Spain.<ref>López-López, P., García-Ripollés, C., Giménez, J., & Urios, V. (2016). ''A Case of Predation of a Eurasian Eagle-Owl by a Bonelli's Eagle''. Journal of Raptor Research, 50(4), 422-424.</ref> Reportedly, in another case of interspecies predation, a [[mountain hawk-eagle]] (''Nisaetus nipalensis'') killed an eagle-owl in the [[Himalayas]].<ref name= Osman>Osman S.M. (1975). ''The Mountain Hawk-Eagle''. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 72 (2): 256-270.</ref> [[Pine marten]]s (''Martes martes'') and [[stone marten]]s (''Martes foina'') are opportunistic nest predators. Although martens could probably reach most eagle-owl nests due to their agility and climbing abilities, they probably will attack nests when disturbance or low food supply result in lower nest attendance by the parent owls. Cases where nests have atypically been accessible on foot (for both humans and wild predators) have resulted in Eurasian eagle-owl nests being predated. [[Eurasian badger]]s, [[wild boar]]s and [[raccoon dog]]s and [[raccoon]]s, the latter two both where non-native in [[Germany]], have also reportedly preyed on nests that they can access. In coastal areas of [[Spain]], [[red fox]]es were reported to have preyed on four eagle-owls, including one unsexed brooding adult, at nests found to be reachable on foot by researchers. Cases of red foxes killing Eurasian eagle-owls at nests have reported elsewhere albeit very rarely, normally the eagle-owl is a greater danger to the foxes (and many of its other nest predators) than vice versa.<ref>Jaume, S. (2000). ''Depredaciones de Zorro Vulpes vulpes sobre Búho Real Bubo bubo en un área del litoral Ibérico''. Ardeola, 47(1), 97-99.</ref><ref>Görner, M. (2005). ''Zur Ernährungssituation des Uhus (Bubo b. bubo L.) in Thüringen: Brutbiologie, Ernährung, Prädation. Ornithol. Anz. 44: 137-139.</ref> In May 2017, a red fox was filmed killing two chicks and raiding the larder of an eagle-owl in Denmark.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Rasmussen|first1=Uffe|title=UTROLIG VIDEO: Ugleunger dræbt for åben skærm|url=http://www.dof.dk/om-dof/nyheder?nyhed_id=1553|website=Dansk Ornitologisk Forening|accessdate=9 May 2017}}</ref>
==References==
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Ethology]]
[[Category:Bubo]]
[[Category:Bird feeding]]
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