위키백과

사용자:FriedC/위장

< 사용자:FriedC
이 문서는 보호색에 관한 것입니다. 소화 기관에 대해서는 위 (해부학) 문서를 참고하십시오.
공작넙치는 환경에 맞추어 무늬와 색상을 바꿀 수 있는 능력을 가지고 있다.
현대의 군사 위장은 분열 무늬 장비, 안면 위장, 자연 재료를 사용한다.

위장 (僞裝), 또는 카무플라주 (camouflage)는 본래의 정체나 모습이 드러나지 않도록 동물이나 사람, 장비 등을 자연 환경과 지형에 맞추어 구별이나 움직임을 은폐하는 눈속임 수단이다. 위장의 예로는 표범의 무늬가 입혀진 가죽, 현대 군인의 전투복, 나뭇잎을 흉내낸 나비 등이 있다. 카무플라주라는 용어는 위장을 뜻하는 프랑스어로, 남의 얼굴에 내뿜는 담배 연기를 뜻하는 카무플레 (camoufle)에서 파생한 것으로 보고 있다.[1]

위장에는 여러 방법이 있으며, 서로 전혀 다른 성격을 갖는다. 의태는 보이기는 하지만 다른 것을 흉내낸 형태의 위장이며, 보호색은 자신을 보이지 않게 숨기는 위장이다.[2] 이 방법들은 모두 눈에 띄지 않는 것을 목적으로 한다는 공통점을 갖는다. 현혹이라는 방법은 포식자나 적에게 눈에 잘 띄는 무늬를 움직이게 하여 혼란을 주는 위장으로, 먹이나 표적이 보이지만 맞추기가 어렵게 된다.

위장에 대한 관심은 19세기에 들어서 소형 화기의 범위와 정밀도가 증가하면서 늘어나기 시작했다. 특히, 정밀하지 않은 머스켓이 라이플로 교체되면서, 전투에서 개인의 은폐가 중요한 생존 기술이 되었다. 20세기, 특히 제1차 세계 대전 동안에는 군사 위장이 급속도로 발달하였다. 지상에서는 안드레 마레와 같은 예술가들이 위장 설계를 하거나 관측 기지를 나무로 위장하였다. 해상에서는 군함이나 군대 수송선에 현혹 위장을 도색하였는데, 눈에 띄기는 쉬우나 적 포수가 표적의 속도와 규모, 진행 방향 등을 파악하지 못하게 혼란을 주도록 디자인한 위장이었다. 제2차 세계 대전에는 동물학자 휴 코트가 비행장이나 포대처럼 커다란 표적이 공중에서 탐지되지 않도록 방어피음과 같은 자연을 모방한 기법을 사용한 위장 설계를 디자인하였다.

찰스 다윈의 자연 선택 이론에 따르면, 위장과 같은 특징은 동물이 생존하는데 도움을 주며, 어떤 종이든 이것을 가지고 진화하는 경향이 있다.[3] 위장은 동물의 생존을 돕거나 특이한 자연 무늬를 만들어내는 동물 체색의 형태일 뿐만 아니라, 위험을 알리는 경계색, 모습을 숨기지 않는 의태 (말벌을 닮은 등에), 성선택에서 사용하는 밝은 색상, 햇볕에 타는 것을 막고자 사용하는 안료처럼 다양하게 적용하기도 한다.

역사 편집

 
Iron observation post camouflaged as an elm tree by Cubist painter Andre Mare, 1916
파일:Disruptive Coloration by Hugh Cott 1940.jpg
Disruptive coloration by Hugh Cott (1900-1987)

근대에 들어서 위장은 생물학에서 흥미로운 조사 주제였다. 찰스 다윈의 1859년 자연선택 이론에 따르면, [3] 위장과 같은 특징은 동물이 생식에 유리한 점을 가진 채로 진화하여, 같은 종의 다른 생물보다 평균적으로 더 많은 자손을 남기는 것이 가능하다. 그의 저서 종의 기원에서 다윈은 다음과 같이 적었다.[5]

"When we see leaf-eating insects green, and bark-feeders mottled-grey; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter, the red-grouse the colour of heather, and the black-grouse that of peaty earth, we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger. Grouse, if not destroyed at some period of their lives, would increase in countless numbers; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey, so much so, that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons, as being the most liable to destruction. Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse, and in keeping that colour, when once acquired, true and constant."

19세기 무렵, 에드워드 배그널 폴턴은 자연 체색, 특히 위장에 대해서 연구하였는데, "특수 보호 유사성" (다른 사물처럼 보이는 동물)이나 "일반 공격 유사성" (먹이에 다가가기 위해 주변 환경에 맞춘 포식자)로 위장의 형태를 분류하였다.[6]

예술가 애벗 핸더슨 세이어는 방어피음의 원리를 다룬 "세이어 법칙"을 세웠다.[7] 하지만 그의 주장은 "잡아 먹거나 잡아 먹히는 어떤 동물이든지 그들이 갖는 모든 무늬와 색상은 환경에 숨기 위한 일정한 규칙을 따른다" (은폐 위장), "'의태'가 아니며, '경고색'도 아니며... '성선택'의 색 또한 아니다. Not one 'mimicry' mark, not one 'warning color'... nor any 'sexually selected' color, exists anywhere in the world where there is not every reason to believe it the very best conceivable device for the concealment of its wearer".[8]

In the First World War, the Cubist painter Andre Mare designed camouflage schemes for the French, British and Italian armies. One of his specialities was designing camouflaged armoured trees for use as observation posts;[9] he was wounded in 1916 helping to set up an observation post.[10] In April 1917, when German U-boats were sinking many British ships with torpedoes, the marine artist Norman Wilkinson devised dazzle camouflage, which paradoxically made ships more visible but harder to target.[11] In Wilkinson's own words, dazzle was designed "not for low visibility, but in such a way as to break up her form and thus confuse a submarine officer as to the course on which she was heading".[12]

In the Second World War, Hugh Cott worked to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage techniques, including countershading. For example, he painted two rail-mounted coastal guns, one in conventional style, one countershaded. In aerial photographs, the countershaded gun is essentially invisible.[13] Cott's 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals introduced ideas such as "maximum disruptive contrast" (see illustration). This uses streaks of boldly contrasting colour, which paradoxically make animals or military vehicles less visible by breaking up their outlines.[14]

Camouflage by mimesis 편집

추가 정보: Mimicry

In mimesis (also called masquerade), the whole animal (or piece of military equipment) looks like some other object, which is of no special interest to the observing animal or enemy.[15]:512,513 Mimesis is common in prey animals, for example when a Peppered Moth caterpillar mimics a twig, or a grasshopper mimics a dry leaf.[2]:151

Mimesis is also employed by some predators (or parasites) to lure their prey. For example, a flower mantis mimics a particular kind of flower, such as an orchid.[2]:134 This tactic has occasionally been used in warfare, for example with heavily armed Q-ships disguised as merchant ships.[16][17]

As an example of mimesis, consider the Common Cuckoo, a brood parasite. The female lays her eggs in nests of other species of bird, always smaller than the cuckoo, one per nest. The female mimics a Sparrowhawk. This makes small birds take action to avoid the apparent predator. The female cuckoo then has time to lay her egg in their nest without being seen to do so.[18] The cuckoo's egg itself mimics the eggs of the host species, reducing its chance of being rejected.[19][20]

A different, non-camouflage strategy is mimicry, where an animal boldly resembles another animal that is poisonous or distasteful: it is then easily seen, but avoided.[2]:6-42

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    Peppered Moth caterpillars are superb twig mimics on birch (left) and willow (right) branches
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    Flower Mantis lures its insect prey by mimicking a Phalaenopsis orchid blossom
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    Hooded Grasshopper Teratodus monticollis, superbly mimics a leaf with a bright orange border
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    This Grasshopper hides from predators by mimicking a dry leaf
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    WWII tank hid from the enemy in Operation Bertram by mimicking a truck
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    Armed WW1 Q-ship lured enemy submarines by mimicking a merchantman
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    Cuckoo adult mimics Sparrowhawk, giving female time to lay eggs parasitically
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    Cuckoo eggs mimicking smaller eggs, in this case of Reed Warbler

Camouflage by crypsis 편집

  Crypsis 문서를 참고하십시오.

Crypsis means blending with the background, making the animal or military equipment hard to see (or to detect in other ways, such as by sound or scent: for details, see Crypsis). This can be achieved in many different ways, including:[2]

  • General resemblance to background
  • Disruptive patterning (breaking up outline)
  • Eliminating shadow
  • Crypsis by behaviour
  • Crypsis by changing skin pattern, colour
  • Countershading
  • Counterillumination

These ways of achieving crypsis are described below.

General resemblance to background 편집

Some animals' colours and patterns resemble a particular natural background, for example the Peppered Moth adult blends in with tree bark.[21]

Disruptive patterning 편집

Disruptive patterns use strongly contrasting markings such as spots or stripes to break up an animal's outlines. Some predators, like the Leopard, and some potential prey like the Egyptian Nightjar, use disruptive patterns.[22] Disruptive patterns "are characterized by high-contrast light and dark patches, in a nonrepetitive configuration, that also provide camouflage by disrupting the recognizable shape or orientation of the animal".[23]

The presence of bold skin markings does not in itself prove that an animal relies on camouflage. According to Mitchell, adult giraffes are "inescapably conspicuous", making the conclusion that their patterns are for camouflage appear counterintuitive: but when standing among trees and bushes their camouflage is effective at even a few metres' distance.[24]:70 Further, young giraffes are much more vulnerable to predation than adults: between 60% and 75% of calves die before their first birthday.[24]:70 Mothers hide their calves, which spend much of the time lying down in cover. Since the presence of a mother does not affect survival, Mitchell suggests that young giraffes must be extremely well camouflaged. This is supported by the fact that coat markings are strongly inherited.[24]:70 Conversely, far from hiding, adult giraffes move about to gain the best view of an approaching predator, relying on their size and ability to defend themselves even from lions.[24]:69

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    Leopard: a disruptively camouflaged (and countershaded) predator
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    Russian T-90 battle tank painted in bold disruptive pattern of sand and green
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    Egyptian Nightjar nests in open sand with only its disruptive plumage to protect it
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    A ptarmigan and five chicks exhibit exceptional disruptive camouflage
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    Papuan Frogmouth Podargus papuensis, superbly disruptive
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    Jumping Spider: a disruptively camouflaged invertebrate predator
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    A soldier applying a disruptive pattern to his face; his helmet and jacket are both disruptively patterned
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    Conspicuous giraffe mother can defend herself, but calf hides for much of day, relying on disruptive camouflage
추가 정보: List of camouflage patterns, Disruptive pattern material, 및 Military camouflage

Disruptive patterning is now common in military usage, both for uniforms and for military vehicles. Disruptive patterning, however, does not always achieve crypsis on its own, as an animal or a military target may be given away by other factors including shape, shine, and shadow.[25] Military camouflage in turn is part of a broad area of deception and concealment from all means of detection including sound and radar; this includes non-camouflage techniques such as use of decoys and electronic jamming.[26][27]

Eliminating shadow 편집

Some animals, such as the Horned Lizards of North America, have evolved elaborate measures to eliminate shadow. Their bodies are flattened, with the sides thinning to an edge; the animals habitually press their bodies to the ground; and their sides are fringed with white scales which "break up and camouflage any dark shadow line that might fall along the body's edge."[28] The theory that the body shape of the Horned Lizards which live in open desert is adapted to minimize shadow is supported by the one species which lacks fringe scales, the Roundtail Horned Lizard, which lives in rocky areas and resembles a rock. "When threatened, it enhances this resemblance by hunching up its back, an act that displays rather than hides its three-dimensionality."[28]

"Elimination of shadow" was identified as a principle of military camouflage during the Second World War.[29]

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    Three countershaded and cryptically coloured Ibex almost invisible in the Israeli desert
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    "Shape, shine, shadow" make these 'camouflaged' military vehicles easily visible
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    The Flat-tail Horned Lizard's body is flattened and fringed to minimise its shadow
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    Camouflage netting is draped away from a military vehicle to reduce its shadow
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    Soviet tanks camouflaged with netting and vegetation, 1938

Crypsis by behaviour 편집

Decoration, keeping still, lying flat 편집

Some animals actively seek to make themselves cryptic by using materials from their environment, such as twigs, sand, or pieces of shell to conceal their outlines, for example when a Caddis Fly larva builds a decorated case, or when a Decorator Crab covers its back with seaweed, sponges and stones.[2]

Among the insects, the nymph of the predatory Reduvius personatus, the Masked Bug, uses its hind legs and a 'tarsal fan' to decorate its body with sand or dust.[30] There are two layers of bristles (trichomes) over the body. On these, the nymph spreads an inner layer of fine particles and an outer layer of coarser particles. The camouflage may conceal the bug from both predators and prey.

Most other forms of crypsis also require some animal behaviour, e.g. lying down and keeping still, as with young Giraffes,[24] lying flat, as in the Flat-tail Horned Lizard,[31] or swaying as if rippled by wind or water currents, as in the Leafy Sea Dragon.[32]

Similar principles can be applied for military purposes, for example when a sniper wears a ghillie suit designed to be further camouflaged by decoration with materials such as tufts of grass from the sniper's immediate environment.

Motion camouflage 편집

Most forms of camouflage break down when the camouflaged animal or object moves, because the motion is easily seen by the observing predator, prey or enemy.[33] However some insects such as hoverflies[34] and dragonflies use motion camouflage: the hoverflies to approach possible mates, and the dragonflies to approach rivals when defending territories.[35][36] Motion camouflage is achieved by moving so as to stay on a straight line between the target and a fixed point in the landscape; the pursuer thus appears not to move, but only to loom larger in the target's field of vision. Numerical simulations show that motion camouflage can be more efficient than classical pursuit (moving straight towards the target at all times).[37] The same technique can be used for military purposes, for example by missiles to minimise their risk of detection by the enemy.[34] Missile engineers call the constant absolute target direction strategy "parallel navigation"; they have used the strategy since the 1940s, primarily for its efficiency. Bats use it for the same reason.[38]

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    In motion camouflage, attacker stays on line from start of its path, so it looms larger but seems not to move
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    Male Syritta pipiens hoverflies use motion camouflage to approach females
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    Male Australian Emperor dragonflies use motion camouflage to approach rivals

Crypsis by changing skin pattern, colour 편집

  Animal coloration 및 Category:Animals that can change color 문서에 이 부분의 추가 정보가 있습니다.

Animals such as chameleon, flatfish, squid or octopus actively and rapidly change their skin patterns and colours using special chromatophore cells to resemble their current background (as well as for signalling).[2][39]

On a longer timescale, some animals like the Arctic Hare, Arctic Fox, Stoat (also called Ermine), and Ptarmigan change their coat colour (by moulting and growing new fur or feathers) from brown or grey in the summer to white in the winter; the Arctic fox is the only species in the dog family (Canidae) to do so.[40] However, Arctic hares which live in the far north of Canada, where summer is very short, remain white all year round.[40][41]

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    Rock Ptarmigan, changing colour in springtime. The male is still mostly in winter plumage
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    Norwegian volunteer soldiers in Winter War, 1940, with white camouflage overalls over their uniforms
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    Arctic Hares in the low arctic change from brown to white in winter
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    Snow-camouflaged German vehicles in Russia, October 1941

Again, similar principles can be applied for military purposes. Active camouflage could in theory make use of both dynamic colour change and counterillumination. Simple techniques such as changing uniforms and repainting vehicles for winter have been in use since the Second World War. In 2011, BAE Systems announced their Adaptiv infrared camouflage technology. It uses about 1000 hexagonal panels to cover the sides of a tank. The panels are rapidly heated and cooled to match either the vehicle's surroundings (crypsis), or an object such as a car (mimesis), when viewed in infrared. The illustration shows how the technology can mimic a harmless vehicle, using part of the panel, while the rest of the panel is cryptic, imitating the natural background.[42][43]

파일:Adaptiv infrared camouflage demo hiding tank as car.jpg
An armoured vehicle fitted with 'Adaptiv' infrared side panels, switched off (left), and on to simulate a large car (right),[44] demonstrates both mimesis and crypsis.

Crypsis by countershading 편집

  이 부분의 본문은 Countershading입니다.

Countershading uses graded colour to create the illusion of flatness. Shadow makes an animal darker below than on top; countershading 'paints in' tones which are darkest on top, lightest below, making the countershaded animal nearly invisible against a matching background.[45] American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer observed that "Animals are painted by Nature, darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky's light, and vice versa". Accordingly the principle of countershading is sometimes called Thayer's Law.[46]

Countershading is widely used by both terrestrial and marine animals. Examples include antelopes such as gazelles, and sharks.

Countershading is less often used for military camouflage, despite Second World War experiments that showed its effectiveness. English Zoologist Hugh B. Cott encouraged the use of techniques including countershading for concealment. He observed that soldiers viewed camouflage netting as "some kind of invisibility cloak: just throw it over the truck and now you don't see it", as Peter Forbes comments.[47] At the same time in Australia, zoologist William John Dakin advised soldiers to copy animals' methods, using their instincts for wartime camouflage.[48]

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    Countershaded Dorcas gazelle, Gazella dorcas
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    Countershaded Grey reef shark, Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos
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    Countershaded ship and submarine in Thayer's 1902 patent application
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    Two model birds painted by Thayer: painted in background colours on the left, countershaded and nearly invisible on the right
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    Countershaded US Navy Vigilante aircraft in jungle colours

Crypsis by counterillumination 편집

  이 부분의 본문은 Counter-illumination입니다.

Counterillumination means producing light to match a background that is brighter than an animal's body; it is a form of active camouflage. It is notably used by some species of squid, such as the sparkling enope squid (Watasenia scintillans) and the Midwater Squid (Abralia veranyi). Abralia has light-producing organs (photophores) scattered all over its underside; these create a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below.[49]

Counterillumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms, though light is also produced to attract prey and for signalling.

Counterillumination has rarely been used for military purposes. "Diffused lighting camouflage" was trialled by Canada's National Research Council during World War II. It involved projecting light on to the sides of ships to match the faint glow of the night sky. The Canadian concept was trialled in the American Yehudi lights project in aircraft including B-24 Liberators and Navy Avengers.[50] The planes were fitted with forward-pointing lamps automatically adjusted to match the brightness of the sky.[51] This enabled them to approach much closer to a target - within 3,000 yards (2,700 metres) - before being seen.[50]

Dazzle patterning 편집

추가 정보: Military camouflage, Dazzle camouflage, 및 Ship camouflage

Most forms of camouflage are made ineffective by movement: a deer or grasshopper may be highly cryptic when motionless, but instantly seen when it moves. But one form of 'camouflage' works only when in motion: dazzle patterning.[52]

Dazzle camouflage superficially resembles disruptive patterning, but has a different purpose. It was used on ships during the First World War, not to make vessels hard to see, but to make their speed, size, range and direction difficult to ascertain by eye.[53] Dazzle patterning is therefore arguably (by definition) not camouflage, though it has been called camouflage since the First World War.[53][54] Non-aligning dazzle patterns may have helped to confuse gunners using optical rangefinders, where two halves of the image had to be aligned by eye to estimate the range to the target ship. However the evidence for its success in naval warfare is mixed.[53] Remarkably, some United States Navy camouflage schemes in World War II attempted to combine disruptive camouflage and dazzle.[55]

Motion dazzle is caused by rapidly-moving bold patterns of contrasting stripes, as when zebras run from a lion. Motion dazzle may degrade predators' ability to estimate the prey's speed and direction accurately, giving the prey an improved chance of escape.[54] Motion dazzle distorts speed perception, and is most effective at high speeds; stripes can also distort perception of size (and so, perceived range to the target).[52] Since dazzle patterns (such as a zebra's stripes) make animals more difficult to locate accurately when moving, but easier to see when stationary, there is an evolutionary trade-off between dazzle and crypsis.[54]

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    A ship painted with dazzle camouflage to confuse enemy gunners as to her speed, direction, and range
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    The Zebra's bold pattern may momentarily confuse predators, especially when many animals are close together and moving rapidly

Military camouflage 편집

  이 부분의 본문은 Military camouflage입니다.

Development of military camouflage 편집

  List of camoufleurs 문서에 이 부분의 추가 정보가 있습니다.

19th century origins 편집

The development of military camouflage was driven by the increasing range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century. In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with weapons such as the Baker rifle made personal concealment in battle essential. For example, two Napoleonic War skirmishing units of the British Army, the 95th Rifle Regiment and the 60th Rifle Regiment, were the first to adopt camouflage in the form of a rifle green jacket, while the Line regiments continued to wear scarlet tunics.[56] In the American Civil War, rifle units such as the 1st United States Sharp Shooters (in the Federal army) similarly wore green jackets while other units wore more conspicuous colours.[57] Other British Army units started to adopt khaki uniforms informally during the Indian mutiny of 1857, and by 1896 khaki drill uniform was used everywhere outside Europe;[58] by the Second Boer War six years later it was used throughout the British Army.[59]

First World War 편집

Military camouflage rapidly became universal in all armed forces during the First World War. On land, camouflage teams of artists such as the French Camouflage Corps led by Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola[60][61] and including André Mare,[62] designed and painted camouflage schemes.[63] At sea, warships and troop carriers were painted in Norman Wilkinson's dazzle patterns that were highly visible, but designed to confuse enemy gunners and submarine commanders as to the target's speed, range, and heading.[64] Advocates of camouflage, like artist Abbott Thayer and zoologist John Graham Kerr, tried to persuade often reluctant commanders and politicians to adopt their preferred approaches; Thayer even believed that white was the hardest colour to see at night or under cloudy skies. So many schemes were tried that it proved impossible after the war to tell which if any had been successful.[65]

Second World War 편집

In the Second World War, zoologists such as Hugh Cott designed camouflage schemes to protect large targets such as airfields and gun batteries from detection from the air, using techniques such as Thayer's countershading and Cott's own disruptive patterning. As in the First World War, advocates of scientific camouflage such as Cott had difficulty persuading reluctant decision makers to adopt their approaches, even when trials showed that these worked.[66]

The power of aerial observation and attack led every warring nation to camouflage targets of all types. The Soviet Union's Red Army created the system of Maskirovka, a comprehensive and effective method of hiding from and deceiving the enemy, including camouflage, use of terrain, and active deception.[67] For example, during the Battle of Kursk, General Katukov, the commander of the Soviet 1st Tank Army, remarked that the enemy "did not suspect that our well-camouflaged tanks were waiting for him. As we later learned from prisoners, we had managed to move our tanks forward unnoticed". The tanks were concealed in previously-prepared defensive emplacements, only their turrets above ground.[68]

Also as in the First World War, artists were pressed into service; for example the surrealist painter Roland Penrose became a lecturer teaching at the newly-founded Camouflage Development and Training Centre at Farnham Castle[69] writing the practical Home Guard Manual of Camouflage.[70]

Camouflaging equipment 편집

Camouflage is used to protect military equipment such as vehicles, guns, ships,[55] aircraft and buildings[71] as well as individual soldiers and their positions.[72] Vehicle camouflage techniques begin with paint, which offers at best only limited effectiveness. Other methods for stationary land vehicles include covering with improvised materials such as blankets and vegetation; and erecting nets, screens and soft covers which may suitably reflect, scatter or absorb near infrared and radar waves.[73][74][75] Some military textiles and vehicle camouflage paints also reflect infrared to help provide concealment from night vision devices.[76][77]

  •  
    Already by 1917, camouflage was essential to prevent detection from the air.
  •  
    USS Duluth in naval camouflage Measure 32, Design 11a, one of many dazzle schemes used on warships.
  •  
    A Supermarine Spitfire's underside "azure" paint scheme reduced detection from below.
  •  
    An ARH Tiger helicopter in ground camouflage.
  •  
    A Luftwaffe aircraft hangar built to resemble a street of village houses, Belgium, 1944.

Textile patterns 편집

A wide variety of camouflaged textile patterns have been developed to suit the need to match different kinds of terrain (such as woodland, snow, and desert), and other purposes such as identifying military units, distinguishing friend from foe, and establishing esprit de corps.[78]

Fashion, art, society 편집

Military camouflage patterns influenced Fashion from the time of the first world war onwards. In 1919, Chelsea Arts Club held a "Dazzle Ball". Those attending wore dazzle-patterned black and white clothing. The ball influenced fashion and art via postcards (see illustration) and magazine articles.[79] The Illustrated London News announced

The scheme of decoration for the great fancy dress ball given by the Chelsea Arts Club at the Albert Hall, the other day, was based on the principles of 'Dazzle', the method of 'camouflage' used during the war in the painting of ships... The total effect was brilliant and fantastic.[79][80]

More recently, fashion designers have often used camouflage fabric for its striking designs, its "patterned disorder" and its symbolism.[81][82]

The artist and camouflage pioneer Abbott Thayer attempted through words and paintings to show that all animal coloration is camouflage. Peacock in the Woods (1907) is his best-known painting.[83] The painting depicts a brightly coloured male peacock in an equally bright, highly contrasting temperate forest, nothing like the bird's actual habitat in India.[83]

The French Cubist artist André Mare (1885-1932) contributed his artistic skills in the first world war, painting artillery pieces in cubist style.[84]

Modern artists such as Ian Hamilton Finlay have used camouflage to reflect on war. His 1973 screenprint of a leafily-camouflaged tank, Arcadia, 1973, is described by the Tate as drawing "an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank".[85] The title refers to the Utopian Arcadia of poetry and art, and the memento mori Latin phrase Et in Arcadia ego which recurs in Hamilton Finlay's work.

In the United States in the late 1960s and early 1970s, military clothing was often worn by anti-war protestors as a symbol of political protest.[82]

Camouflage is occasionally used to make buildings less conspicuous: for example, in South Africa, towers carrying cell telephone antennae are sometimes camouflaged as tall trees with plastic branches (see illustration), in response to "resistance from the community". Since this method is costly (a figure of three times the normal cost is mentioned), alternative forms of camouflage can include using neutral colours, familiar shapes such as cylinders and flagpoles. Conspicuousness can also be reduced by siting masts near or actually on other structures.[86]

See also 편집

 
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References 편집

  1. ↑ “Definition of camouflet”. 
  2. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 바 사 Forbes, P. 2009 p. 50-51
  3. ↑ 가 나 Darwin, C. 1859
  4. ↑ Courtesy of Selwyn College, Cambridge
  5. ↑ Darwin, C. 1859, chapter 4.
  6. ↑ Poulton, E.B. The Colours of Animals: their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects. London, 1890.
  7. ↑ Thayer, A.H. Concealing Colouration in the Animal Kingdom. New York, 1909.
  8. ↑ Forbes, 2009. Page 77, citing Thayer, 1909. Pages 5, 16.
  9. ↑ Art of the First World War: Andre Mare and Leon Underwood. The Elm at Vermezeele (a camouflaged iron tree). Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  10. ↑ Art of the First World War: Andre Mare. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  11. ↑ Obituary, Mr Norman Wilkinson, Inventor of "dazzle" painting, The Times, 1 June 1971.
  12. ↑ Wilkinson, Norman. A Brush with Life. Seeley Service, London, 1969. page 79.
  13. ↑ Forbes 2009, pages 149-150.
  14. ↑ Cott, H.B. Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Methuen, London, 1940.
  15. ↑ Gullan, PJ and PS Cranston (4th Edition, 2010). 《The Insects》. John Wiley, Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-3036-6. 
  16. ↑ Beyer, Kenneth M.: Q-Ships versus U-Boats. America's Secret Project. Naval Institute Press. Annapolis, Maryland, USA. 1999. ISBN 1-55750-044-4
  17. ↑ McMullen, Chris (2001). “Royal Navy 'Q' Ships”. 2012년 3월 6일에 확인함. 
  18. ↑ Welbergen, J.; Davies, N.B. (2011). “A parasite in wolf's clothing: hawk mimicry reduces mobbing of cuckoos by hosts”. 《Behavioral Ecology》 22 (3): 574–579. doi:10.1093/beheco/arr008. 
  19. ↑ Brennand, Emma (2011년 3월 24일). “Cuckoo in egg pattern 'arms race'”. BBC News. 2011년 8월 22일에 확인함. 
  20. ↑ Moskát, C.; Honza, M. (2002). “European Cuckoo Cuculus canorus parasitism and host's rejection behaviour in a heavily parasitized Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus population”. 《Ibis》 144 (4): 614–622. doi:10.1046/j.1474-919X.2002.00085.x. 
  21. ↑ Still, J. (1996). 《Collins Wild Guide: Butterflies and Moths》. HarperCollins. 158쪽. ISBN 0-00-220010-4. 
  22. ↑ Stevens, M.; Cuthill, I.C.; Windsor, A.M.M.; Walker, H.J. (2006년 7 10월). “Disruptive contrast in animal camouflage”. 《Proceedings of the Royal Society B》 273 (1600): 2433–2436. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3614. PMC 1634902. PMID 16959632. 
  23. ↑ Barbosa, A., Mathger, L.M., Buresch, K.C., Kelly, J., Chubb, C., Chiao, C., Hanlon R.T. (2008). “Cuttlefish camouflage: The effects of substrate contrast and size in evoking uniform, mottle or disruptive body patterns” (PDF). 《Vision Research》 48 (10): 1242–1253. doi:10.1016/j.visres.2008.02.011. PMID 18395241. 
  24. ↑ 가 나 다 라 마 Mitchell, G.; Skinner, J. D. (2003). “On the origin, evolution and phylogeny of giraffes Giraffa camelopardalis” (PDF). 《Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa》 58 (1): 51–73. doi:10.1080/00359190309519935. 
  25. ↑ Sweet, K.M. (2006). 《Transportation and Cargo Security: Threats and Solutions》. Prentice Hall. 219쪽. 
  26. ↑ U. S. War Department (1944). 《FM 5-20, CAMOUFLAGE》. 
  27. ↑ Department of the Army (1999년 8월 30일). 《Field Manual Headquarters No. 20-3》. 《Camouflage, Concealment, and Decoys》. 
  28. ↑ 가 나 Sherbrooke, W.C. (2003). 《Introduction to horned lizards of North America》. University of California Press. 117–8쪽. ISBN 978-0-520-22825-2. 
  29. ↑ (U.S. War Department) (1943년 4 11월). “Principles of Camouflage”. 《Tactical and Technical Trends》 (37). 
  30. ↑ Wierauch C. 2006. Anatomy of Disguise: Camouflaging Structures in Nymphs of Some Reduviidae (Heteroptera). Am. Mus. Novit. 3542: 1-18
  31. ↑ “Horned Lizard Conservation Society”. 《What is a Horned Lizard?》. hornedlizards.org. 2011년 12월 21일에 확인함. 
  32. ↑ “Leafy Sea Dragon”. 《The fish that looks like a plant》. WWF. 2011년 12월 21일에 확인함. 
  33. ↑ Cott, H.B. 1940. pages 141-143.
  34. ↑ 가 나 Srinivasan, M.V., Davey, M. (1995). “Strategies for active camouflage of motion”. 《Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B》 259 (1354): 19–25. doi:10.1098/rspb.1995.0004. 
  35. ↑ Hopkin, Michael (2003년 6월 5일). “Nature News”. 《Dragonfly flight tricks the eye》. Nature.com. 2012년 1월 16일에 확인함. 
  36. ↑ Mizutani, A.K., Chahl, J.S., Srinivasan, M.V. (2003년 5 6월). “Insect behaviour: Motion camouflage in dragonflies”. 《Nature》 65 (423): 604. 
  37. ↑ Glendinning, P (2004). “The mathematics of motion camouflage”. 《Proceedings. Biological sciences / the Royal Society》 271 (1538): 477–81. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2622. PMC 1691618. PMID 15129957. 
  38. ↑ Ghose, K., Horiuchi, T.K., Krishnaprasad, P.S., Moss, C.F., 2006 (2006). “Echolocating Bats Use a Nearly Time-Optimal Strategy to Intercept Prey”. 《PLoS Biol》 4 (5): e108. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040108. PMC 1436025. PMID 16605303. 
  39. ↑ Wallin, M. (2002). “Nature's Palette” (PDF). 《Nature's Palette: How animals, including humans, produce colours》. Bioscience-explained.org. Vol 1, No 2, pages 1–12쪽. 2011년 11월 17일에 확인함. 
  40. ↑ 가 나 “Arctic Wildlife”. 《Arctic Wildlife》. Churchill Polar Bears. 2011. 2011년 12월 22일에 확인함. 
  41. ↑ “A hare of a different color”. 《How Arctic Hares have adapted to Gros Morne National Park of Canada》. Parks Canada. 2007년 1월 29일. 2011년 12월 22일에 확인함. 
  42. ↑ “BBC News Technology”. 《Tanks test infrared invisibility cloak》. BBC. 2011년 9월 5일. 2012년 6월 13일에 확인함. 
  43. ↑ “Adaptiv-A Cloak of Invisibility”. BAE Systems. 2011. 2012년 6월 13일에 확인함. 
  44. ↑ “Innovation Adaptiv Car Signature”. 《Image of Adaptiv technology》. BAE Systems. 2012. 2012년 6월 13일에 확인함. 
  45. ↑ Cott, H.B. 1940
  46. ↑ Forbes, P. 2009 p. 72-3
  47. ↑ Forbes, P. 2009, page 152.
  48. ↑ Elias, A.,“'Camouflage Australia: Art, Nature, Science and War'”. (Sydney: “Sydney University Press”. , 2011), pp. 57-66.
  49. ↑ “Midwater Squid, Abralia veranyi”. 《Midwater Squid, Abralia veranyi (with photograph)》. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. 2011년 11월 28일에 확인함. 
  50. ↑ 가 나 Hambling, David (2008년 5월 9일). “Cloak of Light Makes Drone Invisible?”. 《Wired》 (Wired). 2012년 6월 17일에 확인함. 
  51. ↑ “Naval Museum of Quebec”. 《Diffused Lighting and its use in the Chaleur Bay》. Royal Canadian Navy. 2012년 1월 19일에 확인함. 
  52. ↑ 가 나 Scott-Samuel, N.E., Baddeley, R.; Palmer, C.E., Cuthill, I.C. (2011년 6월). Burr, David C., 편집. “Dazzle Camouflage Affects Speed Perception”. 《PLoS ONE》 6 (6): e20233. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0020233. PMC 3105982. PMID 21673797. 
  53. ↑ 가 나 다 Behrens, Roy R. False Colors: Art, Design, and Modern Camouflage. Bobolink Books, 2003.
  54. ↑ 가 나 다 Stevens, M., Searle, W.T.L., Seymour, J.E., Marshall, K.L.A., Ruxton, G.D. (2011년 11월 25일). “BMC Biology: Motion dazzle”. 《Motion dazzle and camouflage as distinct anti-predator defenses》. BMC Biology. 9:81쪽. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-9-81. 2011년 11월 27일에 확인함. 
  55. ↑ 가 나 Sumrall, R.F. "Ship Camouflage (WWII): Deceptive Art" United States Naval Institute Proceedings February 1973 pp.67–81
  56. ↑ Haythornthwaite, P. British Rifleman 1795-1815 Osprey Publishing, 2002, page 20.
  57. ↑ “Killers in Green Coats”. Weider History Group. 2008년 2월 20일. 2012년 7월 8일에 확인함. 
  58. ↑ Barthorp, Michael (1988). 《The British Army on Campaign 1816-1902: Volume 4 (1882-1902)》. Osprey Publishing. 24–33쪽. ISBN 0-85045-849-8. 
  59. ↑ Chappell, M. The British Army in World War I (1). Osprey, 2003, page 37
  60. ↑ Wright, Patrick (2005년 23 6월). “Cubist Slugs”. 《London Review of Books》 27 (12): 16–20. 
  61. ↑ Guirand de Scévola, Lucien-Victor (1949년 12월). “Souvenir de Camouflage (1914-1918)”. 《Revue des Deux Mondes》 (프랑스어). 
  62. ↑ Tate ETC - Art Culture and Camouflage
  63. ↑ Forbes, P, 2009, pages 104-5.
  64. ↑ Forbes, P, 2009, pages 90-97.
  65. ↑ Forbes, P, 2009, pages 85-100.
  66. ↑ Forbes, P, 2009, pages 138-169.
  67. ↑ Keating, Kenneth C. (1981). “Maskirovka: The Soviet System of Camouflage” (PDF). U.S. Army Russian Institute. 2012년 7월 8일에 확인함. 
  68. ↑ Clark, Lloyd (2011). 《Kursk: the greatest battle, eastern front 1943.》. Headline. 278쪽. 
  69. ↑ Farnham Castle website
  70. ↑ Forbes, P, 2009, pages 151-2.
  71. ↑ “Concealment, Camouflage, and Deception” (PDF). Smithsonian. 1–4쪽. 2012년 6월 16일에 확인함. 
  72. ↑ “FM 21-75”. 《Chapter 1: Cover, Concealment, and Camouflage》. 2012년 6월 16일에 확인함. 
  73. ↑ “FM 21-305/AFMAN 24-306” (PDF). 《Chapter 20: Vehicle Camouflage And Nuclear, Biological, And Chemical Operations》. 1–9쪽. 2012년 6월 16일에 확인함. 
  74. ↑ “5-103”. 《Appendix D: Camouflage》. 2012년 6월 17일에 확인함. 
  75. ↑ “SSZ Camouflage”. Mililtary Suppliers & News. 2012. 2012년 6월 17일에 확인함. 
  76. ↑ “camouflage with near infrared reflectance”. Australian Government Department of Defence. 2008년 8월 28일. 2012년 6월 16일에 확인함. 
  77. ↑ Jukkola, E.E. and Cohen, R. (1946). “Color Stability of Olive Drab Infrared-Reflecting Camouflage Finishes”. 《Industrial & Engineering Chemistry》 38 (9): 927–930. doi:10.1021/ie50441a019. 
  78. ↑ Pfanner, Toni (2004년 3월). “Military uniforms and the law of war” (PDF). 《IRRC》 86 (853): 99–100. 
  79. ↑ 가 나 Forbes, 2009, page 100.
  80. ↑ “Illustrated London News”. 《The Great Dazzle Ball at the Albert Hall: The Shower of Bomb Balloons and Some Typical Costumes》 (No. 154). 1919년 3월 22일. pages 414–415면. 
  81. ↑ “Love and War: The Weaponized Woman”. 《John Galliano for Christian Dior, silk camouflage evening dress》. The Museum at FIT. 2006년 12월 16일. 2011년 12월 1일에 확인함. 
  82. ↑ 가 나 Dillon, Ronan (2011년 2월 24일). “Protesters in Camouflage”. 《The Re-Appropriation of Camouflage from military use into civilian clothing.》. This Greedy Pig.com. 2012년 5월 11일에 확인함.  인용 오류: 잘못된 <ref> 태그; "Protesters"이 다른 콘텐츠로 여러 번 정의되었습니다
  83. ↑ 가 나 David Rothenburg, 2011. Pages 132-133.
  84. ↑ “Art of the First World War”. 《26 - André Mare》. SESAM. 1998. 2012년 5월 11일에 확인함. 
  85. ↑ “Ian Hamilton Finlay: Arcadia [collaboration with George Oliver]”. 《Arcadia, 1973》. Tate. July 2008. 2012년 5월 11일에 확인함. 
  86. ↑ du Plessis, A. (2002년 7월 3일). Listing/Telkom Mast/Approved “Telecommunication Mast Management Guidelines For The [[City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality]]” |url= 값 확인 필요 (도움말). Gauteng Province, South Africa: Tshwane.gov.za.  URL과 위키 링크가 충돌함 (도움말) telecom masts policy.doc

Bibliography 편집

Camouflage in nature 편집

Pioneering research 편집

  • Cott, H.B. Adaptive Coloration in Animals. Methuen, London, 1940.
  • Darwin, C. On the Origin of Species. London, 1859. Reprinted 1985, Penguin Classics, Harmondsworth.
  • Poulton, E.B. The Colours of Animals: their meaning and use, especially considered in the case of insects. London, 1890.
  • Thayer, A.H., Thayer, G.H. Concealing Colouration in the Animal Kingdom. New York, 1909.

Recent research 편집

General reading 편집

  • Behrens, R.R. False Colors: Art, Design and Modern Camouflage. Bobolink Books, 2002. ISBN 0-9713244-0-9.
  • Behrens, R.R. Camoupedia: A Compendium of Research on Art, Architecture and Camouflage. Bobolink Books, 2009. ISBN 978-0-9713244-6-6.
  • Elias, A. Camouflage Australia: Art, Nature, Science and War. Sydney University Press, 2011. ISBN 978-1-920899-73-8.
  • Forbes, P. Dazzled and Deceived: Mimicry and Camouflage. Yale, 2009.
  • Newman, A. and Blechman, H. DPM - Disruptive Pattern Material: An Encyclopaedia of Camouflage: Nature, Military and Culture. DPM, 2004.
  • Wickler, W. Mimicry in plants and animals. McGraw-Hill, 1968.

Children's books 편집

  • Kalman, B., Crossingham, J. What are Camouflage and Mimicry?. Crabtree Publishing. (ages 4–8)
  • Mettler, R. Animal Camouflage. Moonlight Publishing. First Discovery series, 2001. (ages 4–8)

Military camouflage 편집

  • Behrens, R.R. (editor) Ship Shape: A Dazzle Camouflage Sourcebook. Bobolink Books, 2012. ISBN 978-0-9713244-7-3.
  • Goodden, H. Camouflage and Art: Design for Deception in World War 2. Unicorn Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-906290-87-3.
  • Latimer, J. Deception in War. John Murray, 2001.
  • Newark, T. Camouflage. Thames and Hudson, with Imperial War Museum, 2007. ISBN 978-0-500-51347-7.

External links 편집

 
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